electronics fundamentals

circuits, devices, and applications

THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA

chapter 18

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

The ideal op-amp

The ideal op-amp is one with optimum characteristics,

which cannot be attained in the real world. Nevertheless,
actual op-amp circuits can often approach this ideal.
The ideal op amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite input resistance
(open), and zero output resistance.

Vin Rin= ∞ Rout= 0

AvVin Vout

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

The practical op-amp

Practical op-amps have limitations including power and

voltage limits. A practical op-amp has high voltage gain,
high input resistance, and low output resistance.
There are two inputs, labeled inverting and non inverting because of
the phase relation of the input and output signals.
inverting input


Vin Rin AvVin Vout

Rout
non inverting
input +

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

The differential amplifier

Most op-amps have a differential amplifier (“diff-amp”) as

the input stage. The differential amplifier has important
advantages over other amplifiers; for example it can reject
common-mode noise. +VCC The signal at the collector
The signal at the collector of of Q2 is not inverted.
Q1 is inverted. RC1 RC2

Q1 Q2

The input is in RE
single-ended mode. At the emitters, the
VEE
signal is ½ of the input.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Differential and common-mode signals

Signals can be applied to either or both inputs. If two input

signals are out of phase, they are in differential-mode. If the
signals are in phase, they are in common-mode.
When the inputs are +VCC
out of phase, the
outputs are amplified RC1 RC2
and larger than with
When the inputs are in
one input. Q1 Q2
phase, the outputs tend
to cancel and are near
zero. RE
Inputs
Inputsout
in phase
of phase VEE

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Many times, noise sources will induce an unwanted voltage

in a signal line. When the noise is induced in common-
mode, the differential amplifier tends to cancel it. (The diff-
amp cannot reject any signal that is in differential mode.)
The ability to reject common-mode signals is measured with a
parameter called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which
is defined as Av ( d )
CMRR 
Acm
 Av ( d ) 
CMRR can be expressed in decibels as CMRR  20 log  
A
 cm 

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

A certain diff-amp has a differential voltage

gain of 500 and a common-mode gain of
0.1. What is the CMRR?

From the defining equation for CMRR:

Av ( d ) 500
CMRR    5000
Acm 0.1
Expressed in decibels, it is
 Av ( d ) 
CMRR  20 log    20 log 5000   74 dB
A
 cm 

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

A certain diff-amp has Ad = 100 and a CMRR

of 90 dB. Describe the output if the input is a
50 mV differential signal and a common
mode noise of 1.0 V is present.
The differential signal is amplified by 100. Therefore,
the signal output is
Vout = Av(d) x Vin = 100 x 50 mV = 5.0 V
The common-mode gain can be found by
A 100 100 100
Acm  v ( d )   4.5   0.0032
CMRR 90 dB 10 31, 600
The noise is amplified by 0.0032. Therefore,
Vnoise = Acm x Vin = 0.0032 x 1.0 V = 3.2 mV
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Op-amp parameters

Some important op-amp parameters are:

Input bias Average of input currents required to bias
current: the first stage of the amplifier:
I1  I 2
I BIAS 
2
Differential input Total resistance between the inverting and
resistance: non-inverting inputs
Common-mode Total resistance between each input and
input resistance: ground.
Input offset Absolute difference between the two bias
current: currents:
I OS  I1  I 2

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Op-amp parameters
Output The resistance when viewed from the output
resistance: terminal.
Common-mode Range of input voltages, which, when applied
input voltage to both inputs, will not cause clipping or other
range: distortion.
Common-mode Ratio of the differential gain to the common-
rejection ratio mode gain. The differential gain for the op-amp
by itself is the same as its open loop gain.
Av ( d ) Aol
CMRR  
Acm Acm

Slew rate: The maximum rate of change of the output in

response to a step input voltage.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Op-amp parameters Vout (V)

12
10
What is the slew rate for
the output signal shown in 0

response to a step input? 10

12 25 s

The output goes from 10 V to +10 V in 25 s.

Vout 20 V
Slew rate =   0.8 V/s
t 25  s

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Negative feedback
In 1921, Harold S. Black was working on the problem of
linearizing and stabilizing amplifiers. While traveling to work on
the ferry, he suddenly realized that if he returned some of the
output back to the input in opposite phase, he had a means of
canceling distortion. One of the most important ideas in
electronics was sketched out on his newspaper that morning.
The op-amp has a differential Vin
+ Vout
amplifier as the input stage. When a Vf -
feedback network returns a fraction
of the output to the inverting input, Feedback
network
only the difference signal (Vin – Vf)
is amplified.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Op amp circuits with negative feedback

Negative feedback is used in almost all linear op-amp

circuits because it stabilizes the gain and reduces
distortion. It can also increase the input resistance.
A basic configuration is a noninverting amplifier. The difference
between Vin and Vf is very small due to feedback. Therefore, Vin  V f .

The closed-loop gain for the

Vin + Vout
noninverting amplifier can
 be derived from this idea; it
Vf Rf
Feedback is controlled by the feedback
network resistors: A Rf
Ri  1
cl (NI)
Ri

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Op amp circuits with negative feedback

The inverting amplifier is a basic configuration in which the

noninverting input is grounded (sometimes through a resistor to
balance the bias inputs). Again, the difference between Vin and Vf is
very small due to feedback; this implies that the inverting input is
nearly at ground. This is referred to as a virtual ground. The virtual
ground looks like ground to voltage, but not to current!
Rf
Virtual ground The closed-loop gain for the
Ri inverting amplifier can be
 derived from this idea; again it
Vin Vout
is controlled by the feedback
+ resistors: A   R f
cl (I)
Ri

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Input resistance for the noninverting amplifier

The input resistance of an op-amp without feedback is

Rin. For the 741C, the manufacturer’s specified value of
Rin is 2 M. Negative feedback increases this to
Rin(NI) = (1 + AolB)Rin. This is so large that for all
practical circuits it can be considered to be infinite.
Vin + Vout
Keep in mind that, although Rin(NI)
 is extremely large, the op-amp is
Rf
a dc amplifier and still requires a
dc bias path for the input.
Ri

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Output resistance for the noninverting amplifier

The output resistance of an op-amp without feedback

is Rout. Negative feedback decreases this by a factor of
(1 + AolB). This is so small that for all practical
circuits it can be considered to be zero.
Rout
Rout (NI) 
Vin
1  Aol B
+ Vout
The low output resistance
 implies that the output voltage
Rf
is independent of the load
resistance (as long as the
Ri current limit is not exceeded).

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

What are the input and output resistances and the gain of
the noninverting amplifier? Assume the op amp has
Aol = 100,000, Rin = 2 M, and Rout = 75 

Vin +
The gain is Vout
Rf 36 k  Rf
Acl (I)  1   1  25
Ri 1.5 k 36 k
1 Ri
The feedback fraction is B   0.040
25 1.5 k
The input resistance is
Rin(NI)  1  Aol B  Rin  1+ 100,000  0.040  2 M = 8 G

Solution continued on next slide…

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

(continued) Vin + Vout

The last result illustrates why it is rarely
necessary to calculate an exact value for  Rf
the input resistance of a noninverting 36 k
amplifier. For practical circuits, you can Ri
assume it is ideal. 1.5 k
The output resistance is
Rout 75 
Rout (NI)   = 0.019 
1  Aol B 1+ 100,000  0.040 
This extremely small resistance is close to ideal. As in the
case of the input resistance, it is rarely necessary to calculate
an exact value for the noninverting amplifier.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Input resistance for the inverting amplifier

Recall that negative feedback forces the inverting input

to be near ac ground for the inverting amplifier. For
this reason, the input resistance of the inverting
amplifier is equal to just the input resistor, Ri. That is,
Rin(I) = Ri. Rf The low input resistance is
usually a disadvantage of this
Ri circuit. However, because the
Vin  Vout Rin(I) is equal to Ri, it can easily
+ be set by the user for those cases
where a specific value is needed.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Output resistance for the inverting amplifier

The equation for the output resistance of the inverting

amplifier is the essentially the same as the
noninverting amplifier: Rout
Rout (I) 
1  Aol B
Rf
Although Rout(I) is very small,
this does not imply that an op-
Ri
Vin  amp can drive any load. The
Vout
maximum current that the op-
+ amp can supply is limited; for
the 741C, it is typically 20 mA.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

What is the input resistance and the gain Rf

of the inverting amplifier?
36 k
Ri
Vin  Vout
1.5 k
+
Rf 36 k
The gain is Acl (I)     24
Ri 1.5 k

The input resistance = Ri = 1.5 k

The output resistance is nearly identical to the noninverting

case, where it was shown to be negligible.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18

Voltage-follower

The voltage-follower is a special case of the noninverting

amplifier in which Acl = 1. The input resistance is
increased by negative feedback and the output resistance
is decreased by negative feedback. This makes it an ideal
circuit for interfacing a high-resistance source with a low
resistance load.
Vin + Vout

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Selected Key Terms
Operational A special type of amplifier exhibiting very
amplifier high open-loop gain, very high input
resistance, very low output resistance, and
good rejection of common-mode signals.
Differential An amplifier that produces an output
amplifier proportional to the difference of two inputs.

Common-mode A measure of a diff-amp's or op-amp's

rejection ratio ability to reject signals that appear the same
(CMRR) on both inputs; the ratio of differential
voltage gain or open-loop gain (for op-amps)
to common-mode gain.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Selected Key Terms
Open-loop The internal voltage gain of an op-amp
voltage gain without feedback.
Closed-loop The overall voltage gain of an op-amp with
voltage gain negative feedback.
Noninverting An op-amp closed-loop configuration in
amplifier which the input signal is applied to the
noninverting input.
Inverting An op-amp closed-loop configuration in
amplifier which the input signal is applied to the
inverting input.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

1. When two identical in-phase signals are applied to the

inputs of a differential amplifier, they are said to be
a. feedback signals.
b. noninverting signals.
c. differential-mode signals.
d. common-mode signals.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

2. Assume a differential amplifier has an input signal

applied to the base of Q1 as shown. An inverted replica
of this signal will appear at the
a. emitter terminals.
RC1 RC2
b. collector of Q1
Q1 Q2
c. collector of Q2
d. all of the above. RE
VEE

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

3. A differential amplifier will tend to reject

a. noise that is in differential-mode.

b. noise that is in common-mode.
c. only high frequency noise.
d. all noise.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

4. The average of two input currents required to bias the

first stage of an op-amp is called the
a. input offset current.
b. open-loop input current.
c. feedback current.
d. input bias current.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

5. The slew rate illustrated is Vout (V)

a. 0.5 V/s 12
10
b. 1.0 V/s
0
c. 2.0 V/s
10
d. 2.4 V/s 12 10 s

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

6. For the circuit shown, Vf is approximately equal to

a. Vin + Vout
Vin

b. Vout Rf
Vf
Feedback
c. ground. Ri
network

d. none of the above.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

7. For the inverting amplifier shown, the input resistance is

closest to
Rf
a. zero
150 k
b. 10 k Ri
Vin  Vout
10 k
c. 2 M +
d. 8 G

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

8. For the inverting amplifier shown, the output resistance

is closest to
Rf
a. zero
150 k
b. 10 k Ri
Vin  Vout
10 k
c. 150 k +
d. 8 G

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

9. The gain of the inverting amplifier shown is

a. 1 Rf
b. 10 150 k
Ri
Vin
c. 15  Vout
10 k
d. 16 +

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

10. A voltage follower has

a. current gain.
b. voltage gain.
c. both of the above.
d. none of the above.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Quiz

Answers:
1. d 6. a
2. b 7. b
3. b 8. a
4. d 9. c
5. c 10. a

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition

© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.