SCHEDULE

05:00 – 06:30 Read Module 2

06:30 – 07:30 Lecture
07:30 – 08:00 Break
08:00 – 09:00 Module 2 Exam

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 1

 MODULE 2

NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 2

 Module Objectives

Upon completion of this module, the student will

be able to perform tasks related to the following:

1. Networking Terminology
2. Digital Bandwidth
3. Networking Models

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 3

 Networking Fundamentals

This module discusses the importance of bandwidth and

explains how it is calculated and measured.

It covers the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model and

the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
model and presents its differences and similarities.

It also presents a brief history of networking, describes

network devices, as well as cabling, physical, and logical
layouts. It also defines and compares LANs, MANs, WANs,
SANs, and VPNs.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 4

 Networking Terminology
Data Networks
Data networks developed as a result of
business applications that were written for
microcomputers.
Sneakernet - creation of multiple copies of the
data using a floppy disk.
Businesses needed a solution on:
 How to avoid duplication of equipment and
resources
 How to communicate efficiently
 How to set up and manage a network

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 5

 Networking Terminology
Data Networks
Early solution was the creation of local-area
network (LAN) standards that provides an
open set of guidelines for creating network
hardware and software (compatibility) and
allowed stability in LAN implementation.

Next was the creation of metropolitan-area

networks (MANs) and wide-area networks
(WANs). Because WANs could connect user
networks over large geographic areas, it was
possible for businesses to communicate with
each other across great distances.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 6

 Networking Terminology
Network History

1940s: computers were large electromechanical devices (prone to failure)

1947: invention of semiconductor transistor
1950s: mainframe computers (run by punched card programs)
Late 1950s: invention of integrated circuits (ICs)
1960s: mainframes with terminals were commonplace, and ICs widely used
Late 1960s and 70s: minicomputers came into existence
1977: Apple Computer Company introduced the microcomputer, PC
1981: IBM introduced its first personal computer
Mid-1980s: users with stand-alone computers started to share files using modems to
connect to other computers (referred to as point-to-point, or dial-up communication)

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 7

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
End-user devices - allow users to share,
create, and obtain information (e.g.
computers, printers, scanners, and other
devices that provide services directly to the
user)

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 8

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
Network devices - all devices that connect the
end-user devices together to allow them to
communicate and provide transport for the
data that needs to be transferred between
end-user devices.
Network devices provide extension of cable
connections, concentration of connections,
conversion of data formats, and management
of data transfers.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 9

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
Repeater is a network device used to
regenerate analog or digital signals distorted
by transmission loss due to attenuation. It
does not perform intelligent routing like a
bridge or router.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 10

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
Hubs concentrate connections by taking a
group of hosts and allowing the network to
see them as a single unit. This is done
passively, without any other effect on the
data transmission. Active hubs not only
concentrate hosts, but they also regenerate
signals.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 11

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
Bridges convert network transmission data
formats and perform basic data transmission
management. Bridges provide connections
between LANs, performs a check on the data
to determine whether it should cross the
bridge or not (more efficient network).

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 12

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
Workgroup switches add more intelligence to
data transfer management, by determining
whether data should remain on a LAN or not,
and transferring the data only to the
connection that needs that data (does not
convert data transmission formats).

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 13

 Networking Terminology
Networking Devices
Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate
multiple connections, convert data
transmission formats, and manage data
transfers. They can also connect to a WAN,
which allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 14

 Networking Terminology
Network Topology

Network topology defines the structure of the network.

1. Physical topology- the actual layout of the wire or

media.
2. Logical topology - defines how the media is
accessed by the hosts for sending data.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 15

 Networking Terminology
Physical Topologies
Bus topology uses a single backbone cable
that is terminated at both ends. All the hosts
connect directly to this backbone.

Ring topology connects one host to the next

and the last host to the first. This creates a
physical ring of cable.

Star topology connects all cables to a central

point of concentration.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 16

 Networking Terminology
Physical Topologies
Extended star topology links individual stars
together by connecting the hubs and/or
switches. This topology can extend the scope
and coverage of the network.

Hierarchical topology is similar to extended

star. Instead of linking the hubs and/or
switches together, system is linked to a
computer that controls the traffic.
Mesh topology is implemented to provide as
much protection as possible from interruption
of service.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 17

 Networking Terminology
Logical Topologies

1. Broadcast topology simply means that each host sends its

data to all other hosts on the network medium. There is
no order that the stations must follow to use the network
( first come, first serve basis). Ethernet works this way.
2. Token passing controls network access by passing an
electronic token sequentially to each host. When a host
receives the token, that host can send data on the
network. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token
to the next host and the process repeats itself. Two
examples of networks that use token passing are Token
Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 18

 Networking Terminology
Network Protocols
Protocol - formal description of a set of rules
and conventions that govern a particular
aspect of how devices on a network
communicate.
Protocols control all aspects of data
communication, which include the following:
 How the physical network is built
 How computers connect to the network
 How the data is formatted for transmission
 How that data is sent
 How to deal with errors

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 19

 Networking Terminology
Local-Area Networks (LANs)
LANs consist of the following components:
 Computers
 Network interface cards
 Peripheral devices
 Networking media
 Network devices
LANs make it possible to locally share files
and printers efficiently, and make internal
communications possible.
Some common LAN technologies are
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 20

 Networking Terminology
Wide-Area Networks (WANs)
WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide access to
computers or file servers in other locations, because WANs
connect user networks over a large geographical area.
WANs are designed to do the following:
 Operate over a large geographically separated areas
 Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities
with other users
 Provide full-time remote resources connected to local `
services
 Provide e-mail, World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-
commerce services
Some common WAN technologies are:
Modems, Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN),
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Frame Relay, US (T) and
Europe (E) Carrier Series – T1, E1, T3, E3, Synchronous
Optical Network (SONET)

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 21

 Networking Terminology
Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs)
A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan
area such as a city or suburban area, usually
consists of two or more LANs in a common
geographic area.
Typically, a service provider is used to
connect two or more LAN sites using:
• private communication lines
• optical services
• wireless technology

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 22

 Networking Terminology
Storage-Area Networks (SANs)
A SAN is a dedicated, high-performance network
used to move data between servers and storage
resources.
• avoids any traffic conflict between clients
and servers
• allows high-speed server-to-storage,
storage-to-storage, or server-to-server
connectivity
Features:
 Performance (enables concurrent access to
resources)
 Availability (disaster tolerance built in, data can be
mirrored)
 Scalability (uses a variety of technologies)

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 23

 Networking Terminology
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A VPN is a private network that is constructed
within a public network infrastructure such as
the global Internet.
Using VPN, a telecommuter can access the
network of the company headquarters
through the Internet by building a secure
tunnel between the telecommuter’s PC and a
VPN router in the headquarters.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 24

 Networking Terminology
Benefits of VPN
VPN is a service that offers secure, reliable
connectivity over a shared public network
infrastructure because VPNs maintain the
same security and management policies as a
private network.
VPNs are the most cost-effective method of
establishing a point-to-point connection
between remote users and an enterprise
customer's network.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 25

 Networking Terminology
VPN Technologies
Access VPNs – provide remote access to a mobile
worker and small office/home office (SOHO) to the
headquarters of the Intranet or Extranet over a
shared infrastructure. Use analog, dialup, ISDN,
digital subscriber line (DSL), mobile IP, and cable
technologies to securely connect mobile users,
telecommuters, and branch offices.
Intranet VPNs – link regional and remote offices to
the headquarters of the internal network over a
shared infrastructure using dedicated connections.
They allow access only to the employees of the
enterprise.
Extranet VPNs – link business partners to the
headquarters of the network over a shared
infrastructure using dedicated connections. They
allow access to users outside the enterprise.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 26

 Networking Terminology
Intranets and Extranets
Intranets are designed to permit access
by users who have access privileges to
the internal LAN of the organization
(public must have the proper permissions
and passwords to access the Intranet of
an organization).
Extranets refer to applications and
services that are Intranet based, and use
extended, secure access to external
users or enterprises (extension of two or
more Intranets).

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 27

 Bandwidth
Importance of Bandwidth

Bandwidth - the amount of information that can flow through a

network connection in a given period of time.

• Bandwidth is finite.

• Bandwidth is not free.

• Bandwidth is a key factor in analyzing network performance,

designing new networks, and understanding the Internet.

• The demand for bandwidth is ever increasing.

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 Bandwidth
Analogies

Bandwidth is like the width of a Bandwidth is like the number of

pipe. lanes on a highway.
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 Bandwidth
Measurement

The basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps). Although

bandwidth can be described in bits per second, usually some multiple
of bits per second is used.

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 Bandwidth
Limitations
Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and
WAN technologies used.

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 Bandwidth
Throughput
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of
day, using specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is
transmitted on the network.
Factors that determine throughput:
• Internetworking devices
• Type of data being transferred
• Network topology
• Number of users on the network
• User computer
• Server computer
• Power conditions

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 32

 Bandwidth
Data Transfer Calculation
Two important points should be considered
when doing data transfer calculation:
1. The result is an estimate only, because the
file size does not include any overhead
added by encapsulation.
2. The result is likely to be a best-case
transfer time, because available
bandwidth is almost never at the theoretical
maximum for the network type.
A more accurate estimate can be
attained if throughput is substituted
for bandwidth in the equation.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 33

 Bandwidth
Digital versus Analog
Analog bandwidth is measured by how much
of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied
by each signal. The basic unit of analog
bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles per second
(kilohertz (KHz), megahertz (MHz), and
gigahertz (GHz)).
Digital signaling, all information is sent as bits,
regardless of the kind of information it is.
Voice, video, and data all become streams of
bits when they are prepared for transmission
over digital media.

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 Networking Models
Using Layers to Analyze Problems in a
Flow of Materials

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 Networking Models
Using Layers to Analyze Problems in a
Flow of Materials

The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that

explain how data is communicated from one
computer to another.
When computers send information through a
network, all communications originate at a
source then travel to a destination.
The information that travels on a network is
generally referred to as data or a packet. A
packet is a logically grouped unit of
information that moves between computer
systems.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 36

 Networking Models
Using Layers to Describe Data Communication
All devices on the network should “speak” the
same language or protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that make
communication on a network more efficient.
A data communications protocol is a set of
rules or an agreement that determines the
format and transmission of data.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 37

 Networking Models
The OSI Model
The Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model provided vendors with a set
of standards that ensured greater
compatibility and interoperability among
various network technologies and become the
primary model for network communications.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 38

 Networking Models
The OSI Model
Advantages:
• Breaks network communication into
smaller, more manageable parts.
• Standardizes network components to allow
multiple vendor development and support.
• Allows different types of network hardware
and software to communicate with each
other.
• Prevents changes in one layer from
affecting other layers.
• It divides network communication into
smaller parts to make learning it easier to
understand.

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
The OSI Layers

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 Networking Models
Peer-to-peer Communications
Each layer of the OSI model at the source
must communicate with its peer layer at the
destination (referred to as peer-to-peer).
During this process, the protocols of each
layer exchange information, called protocol
data units (PDUs).
Each layer of communication on the source
computer communicates with a layer-specific
PDU, and with its peer layer on the
destination computer.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 47

 Networking Models
The TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP was developed as an open standard and
created by U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).
• Application layer handles issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog
control.
• Transport layer deals with the quality of
service issues of reliability, flow control,
and error correction.
• Internet layer divides TCP segments into
packets and send them from any network.
independent of the path they took to get
there.
• Network access layer is concerned with all of
the components, both physical and logical, that
are required to make a physical link.
04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 48
 Networking Models
The TCP/IP Model
Most commonly used application layer protocols:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Common transport layer protocols include:
• Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Primary protocol of the Internet layer is:
• Internet Protocol (IP)

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 49

 Networking Models
Comparing OSI and TCP/IP Models
Similarities: Differences:
• Both have layers. • TCP/IP combines the presentation and
session layer issues into its application
• Both have application layers, though they
layer.
include very different services.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and
• Both have comparable transport and
physical layers into the network access
network layers.
layer.
• Both models need to be known by
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has
networking professionals.
fewer layers.
• Both assume packets are switched. This
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around
means that individual packets may take
which the Internet developed, so the
different paths to reach the same
TCP/IP model gains credibility just because
destination. This is contrasted with
of its protocols. In contrast, networks are
circuit-switched networks where all the
not usually built on the OSI protocol, even
packets take the same path.
though the OSI model is used as a guide.
04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 50
 Networking Models
Detailed Encapsulation Process
• Build the data.
• Package the data for end-to-end
transport.
• Add the network IP address to the
header.
• Add the data link layer header and
trailer.
• Convert to bits for transmission.

04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 51

 NEXT TOPIC . . .

MODULE 3 – NETWORKING MEDIA

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04/14/24 CCNA Semester 1 53