0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 views34 pages

Module 2 Dbms 1st Internal

Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 views34 pages

Module 2 Dbms 1st Internal

Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 34

MODULE 2

Introduction to Databases
Database Management System
Subject Code: 18CS53
CONTENTS
• Relational Model: Relational Model Concepts
– Relational Model Constraints and relational database schemas
– Update operations
– transactions and dealing with constraint violations.
• Relational Algebra:
– Unary and Binary relational operations
– additional relational operations (aggregate, grouping, etc.)
– Examples of Queries in relational algebra.
• Mapping Conceptual Design into a Logical Design:
-- Relational Database Design using ER-to-Relational mapping.
• SQL:
• SQL data definition and data types
• Specifying constraints in SQL
• Retrieval queries in SQL, INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE statements in SQL
• Additional features of SQL.
Relational Model Concepts
• The relational model represents the database
as a collection of relations.

• A Relation is a mathematical concept based on


the ideas of sets

• The model was first proposed by Dr. E.F. Codd


of IBM Research in 1970 in the following
paper:
– "A Relational Model for Large Shared Data Banks,"
Communications of the ACM, June 1970 Slide 5- 4
Why Relations?
• Very simple model.

• Often matches how we think about data.

• Abstract model that underlies SQL, the most


important database language today.

Slide 5- 5
Informal Definitions
• Informally, a relation looks like a table of values.

• A relation typically contains a set of rows.

• The data elements in each row represent certain facts that


correspond to a real-world entity or relationship
– In the formal model, rows are called tuples

• Each column has a column header that gives an indication of


the meaning of the data items in that column
– In the formal model, the column header is called an
attribute name (or just attribute)

Slide 5- 6
Example of a Relation

Slide 5- 7
Informal Definitions
• Key of a Relation:
– Each row has a value of a data item (or set of items) that
uniquely identifies that row in the table
• Called the key

– In the STUDENT table, SSN is the key

– Sometimes row-ids or sequential numbers are assigned


as keys to identify the rows in a table
• Called artificial key or surrogate key

Slide 5- 8
Formal Definitions - Schema
• The Schema (or description) of a Relation:
– Denoted by R(A1, A2, .....An)
– R is the name of the relation
– The attributes of the relation are A1, A2, ..., An
• Example:
CUSTOMER (Cust-id, Cust-name, Address, Phone#)
– CUSTOMER is the relation name
– Defined over the four attributes: Cust-id, Cust-name, Address,
Phone#
• Each attribute has a domain or a set of valid values.
• Domain is the set of allowable values for one or more
attributes.
– For example, the domain of Cust-id is 6 digit numbers.
Slide 5- 9
Comparative Terms
Formal Oracle

Relation schema Table description


Relation Table
Tuple Row
Attribute Column
Domain Value set

• Notation

Course (courseno, subject, equipment)

Student(studno,name,hons)

• Enrol(studno,courseno,labmark)

Slide 5- 10
Relational Model Terminology
• Tuple is a row of a relation.

• Degree is the number of attributes in a relation.

• Cardinality is the number of tuples in a relation.

• Relational Database is a collection of normalized relations


with distinct relation names.

Slide 5- 11
Definition Summary
Informal Terms Formal Terms
Table Relation
Column Header Attribute
All possible Column Domain
Values
Row Tuple
Table Definition Schema of a Relation
Populated Table State of the Relation

Slide 5- 12
Example – A relation STUDENT

Slide 5- 13
Properties of Relations
• Relation name is distinct from all other relation names in
relational schema.

• Each cell of relation contains exactly one atomic (single)


value.
• Each attribute has a distinct name.
• Values of an attribute are all from the same domain.

• Each tuple is distinct; there are no duplicate tuples.

Slide 5- 14
Properties of Relations
• Order of attributes has no significance.

• Order of tuples has no significance, theoretically.

• A special null value is used to represent values that are


unknown or inapplicable to certain tuples.
– Represents the absence of a value and is not the same as zero or
spaces, which are values.

Slide 5- 15
Relational Integrity Constraints
• Constraints are conditions that must hold on all valid relation
states.

• There are three main types of constraints in the relational


model:
– Key constraints
– Entity integrity constraints
– Referential integrity constraints

• Another implicit constraint is the domain constraint


– Every value in a tuple must be from the domain of its attribute
(or it could be null, if allowed for that attribute)

Slide 5- 16
Key Constraints
• Superkey:
– An attribute, or a set of attributes whose
values together uniquely identify a tuple
in a relation.

• Key or Candidate Key:


– A "minimal" superkey
– A superkey K such that removal of any attribute from K
results in a set of attributes that is not a superkey
(does not possess the superkey uniqueness property)
Slide 5- 17
Key Constraints (continued)
• Primary Key
– a candidate key chosen to be the main key for
the relation.
– One for each relation
• Alternate Keys
– Candidate keys that are not selected to be
primary key.
• Foreign Key
– Attribute, or set of attributes, within one
relation that matches candidate key in other or
same relation.
• Keys can be composite Slide 5- 18
Key Constraints (continued)
• Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:
– CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)
– CAR has two keys:
• Key1 = {State, Reg#}
• Key2 = {SerialNo}
– Both are also superkeys of CAR
– {SerialNo, Make} is a superkey but not a key.
• In general:
– Any key is a superkey (but not vice versa)
– Any set of attributes that includes a key is a superkey
– A minimal superkey is also a key

Slide 5- 19
Key Constraints (continued)
• If a relation has several candidate keys, one is chosen
arbitrarily to be the primary key.
– The primary key attributes are underlined.
• Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:
– CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)
– We chose SerialNo as the primary key
• The primary key value is used to uniquely identify each tuple
in a relation
– Provides the tuple identity
• Also used to reference the tuple from another tuple
– General rule: Choose as primary key the smallest of the
candidate keys (in terms of size)

Slide 5- 20
CAR table with two candidate keys –
License_Number chosen as Primary Key

Slide 5- 21
Entity Integrity
• Entity Integrity:
– The primary key attributes PK of each relation cannot have
null values.
• This is because primary key values are used to identify the
individual tuples.
• If PK has several attributes, null is not allowed in any of these
attributes

– Note: Other attributes of R may be constrained to disallow


null values, even though they are not members of the
primary key.

Slide 5- 22
Referential Integrity
• A constraint involving two relations
– Used to specify a relationship among tuples in two relations,
the referencing relation and the referenced relation.

• Tuples in the referencing relation R1 have attributes FK


(called foreign key attributes) that reference the
primary key attributes PK of the referenced relation R2.
• A referential integrity constraint can be displayed in a
relational database schema as a directed arc from R1.FK
to R2.

Slide 5- 23
Referential Integrity (or foreign key)
Constraint
• The value in the foreign key column (or
columns) FK of the the referencing relation R1
can be either:
• (1) a value of an existing primary key value of a
corresponding primary key PK in the referenced
relation R2, or
• (2) a null.

• In case (2), the FK in R1 should not be a part of


its own primary key. Slide 5- 24
General Constraints
• Additional rules specified by users or database
administrators that define or constrain some
aspect of the enterprise.

Slide 5- 25
Displaying a relational database schema
and its constraints
• Each relation schema can be displayed as a row of attribute
names
• The name of the relation is written above the attribute names
• The primary key attribute (or attributes) will be underlined
• A foreign key (referential integrity) constraints is displayed as
a directed arc (arrow) from the foreign key attributes to the
referenced table
– Can also point the the primary key of the referenced relation for
clarity
• Next slide shows the COMPANY relational schema diagram

Slide 5- 26
Referential Integrity Constraints for COMPANY DB

Slide 5- 27
Populated database state
• Each relation will have many tuples in its
current relation state
• Whenever the database is changed, a new state
arises
• Basic operations for changing the database:
– INSERT a new tuple in a relation
– DELETE an existing tuple from a relation
– MODIFY an attribute of an existing tuple
• Next slide shows an example state for the
COMPANY database
Slide 5- 28
Populated database state for COMPANY

Slide 5- 29
Update Operations on Relations
• INSERT a tuple.
• DELETE a tuple.
• MODIFY a tuple.
• Integrity constraints should not be violated by the
update operations.
• Several update operations may have to be grouped
together.
• Updates may propagate to cause other updates
automatically. This may be necessary to maintain
integrity constraints.
Slide 5- 30
Update Operations on Relations
• In case of integrity violation, several actions
can be taken:
– Cancel the operation that causes the violation
(RESTRICT or REJECT option)
– Perform the operation but inform the user of the
violation
– Trigger additional updates so the violation is
corrected (CASCADE option, SET NULL option)
– Execute a user-specified error-correction routine

Slide 5- 31
Possible violations for each operation
• INSERT may violate any of the constraints:
– Domain constraint:
• if one of the attribute values provided for the new tuple is not of
the specified attribute domain
– Key constraint:
• if the value of a key attribute in the new tuple already exists in
another tuple in the relation
– Referential integrity:
• if a foreign key value in the new tuple references a primary key
value that does not exist in the referenced relation
– Entity integrity:
• if the primary key value is null in the new tuple

Slide 5- 32
Possible violations for each operation
• DELETE may violate only referential integrity:
– If the primary key value of the tuple being deleted is referenced
from other tuples in the database
• Can be handled by several actions: RESTRICT, CASCADE, SET NULL
(see Chapter 8 for more details)
– RESTRICT option: reject the deletion
– CASCADE option: propagate the new primary key value into the
foreign keys of the referencing tuples
– SET NULL option: set the foreign keys of the referencing tuples to
NULL
– One of the above options must be specified during database
design for each foreign key constraint

Slide 5- 33
Possible violations for each operation
• UPDATE may violate domain constraint and NOT NULL
constraint on an attribute being modified
• Any of the other constraints may also be violated, depending
on the attribute being updated:
– Updating the primary key (PK):
• Similar to a DELETE followed by an INSERT
• Need to specify similar options to DELETE
– Updating a foreign key (FK):
• May violate referential integrity
– Updating an ordinary attribute (neither PK nor FK):
• Can only violate domain constraints

Slide 5- 34

You might also like