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CH 1

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17 views52 pages

CH 1

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lemi bk
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter One

Introduction & Evolution of Microprocessor

ERGOYE D.(MSc)
04/12/2024 1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
AFTER COMPLETING THIS CHAPTER, THE LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE
TO:

 DESCRIBE MICROPROCESSORS
UNDERSTAND GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM.
 DISCUSS EVOLUTION OF INTEL MICROPROCESSORS
 IDENTIFY ARCHITECTURAL COMPATIBILITY
KNOW THE HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE COMPONENTS
REVIEW OF THE BASIC NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CONVERSION BETWEEN
DIFFERENT NUMBER SYSTEMS

04/12/2024 2
WHAT IS MICROPROCESSORS?

04/12/2024 3
INTRODUCTION OF MICROPROCESSOR
AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT THAT CONTAINS ALL THE FUNCTIONS
OF A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT OF A COMPUTER.

 IT IS A SINGLE CHIP WHICH IS CAPABLE OF PROCESSING DATA

 IT CONTROLS ALL COMPONENTS LIKE MEMORY, I/O AND


EXTERNAL.

 IT EXECUTES SEQUENCE OF INSTRUCTION, IT FETCHES,


DECODES AND EXECUTE THE INSTRUCTION
04/12/2024 4
• A MICROPROCESSOR IS AN ELECTRONIC COMPONENT THAT IS USED BY A COMPUTER TO
DO ITS WORK.

• IT IS A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT ON A SINGLE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CHIP


CONTAINING MILLIONS OF VERY SMALL COMPONENTS INCLUDING TRANSISTORS,
RESISTORS, AND DIODES THAT WORK TOGETHER

04/12/2024 5
MICROPROCESSOR

A typical programmable system can be


represented as their basic components
 Microprocessors
 Memory
 Input/output Device

04/12/2024 6
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROPROCESSOR

04/12/2024 7
HOW DOES A MICROPROCESSOR WORK?

A PROCESSOR BASICALLY CONSISTS OF ARITHMETICAL AND LOGICAL UNIT (), CONTROL


UNIT AND REGISTER ARRAY.

ALU:- AS THE NAME INDICATES ALU PERFORMS ALL ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL OPERATIONS
ON THE DATA RECEIVED FROM INPUT DEVICES OR MEMORY.

REGISTER ARRAY CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF REGISTERS WHICH ACTS AS TEMPORARY FAST


ACCESS MEMORY LOCATIONS FOR PROCESSING DATA.

AS THE NAME INDICATES, CONTROL UNIT CONTROLS THE FLOW OF INSTRUCTIONS AND
DATA THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM.

SO BASICALLY, A MICROPROCESSOR TAKES INPUT FROM INPUT DEVICES, PROCESS IT AS PER


INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN THE MEMORY AND PRODUCES OUTPUT. 04/12/2024 8
• A MICROPROCESSOR IS THE CONTROLLING ELEMENT IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM
AND SOMETIME REFEREED AS CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU).

• A MICROPROCESSOR CAN CONTROL MEMORY AND I/O DEVICES THROUGH A


SERIES OF CONNECTIONS CALLED BUSES. BUSES SELECT AN I/O OR MEMORY
DEVICE ,TRANSFER THE DATA BETWEEN AN I/O DEVICE OR MEMORY OR THE
MICROPROCESSOR AND CONTROL THE I/O AND MEMORY SYSTEM.

• MEMORY AND I/O ARE CONTROLLED THROUGH THE INSTRUCTIONS THAT ARE
STORED IN THE MEMORY AND EXECUTED BY THE MICROPROCESSOR.

04/12/2024 9
MICROPROCESSOR PERFORMS THREE MAIN TASK FOR THE COMPUTER SYSTEM.

DATA TRANSFER BETWEEN ITSELF AND MEMORY OR I/O

SYSTEM.

SIMPLE ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC OPERATIONS

PROGRAM FLOW VIA SIMPLE DECISIONS


POWER OF THE MICROPROCESSOR IS IN ITS
ABILITY TO EXECUTE MILLIONS OF INSTRUCTION
PER SECOND FROM A PROGRAM OR SOFTWARE
STORED IN MEMORY SYSTEM. 04/12/2024 10
CLASSIFICATION OF

MICROPROCESSOR
MICROPROCESSOR CAN BE CLASSIFIED BASED ON THE APPLICATIONS AND
ARCHITECTURE.
• BASED ON THE SIZE OF DATA THAT MICROPROCESSOR CAN HANDLED, THEY ARE
CLASSIFIED AS 4-BIT,8-BIT, 16-BIT AND 64 BIT MICROPROCESSOR.
• BASED ON THE APPLICATION OF MICROPROCESSOR, THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:-

GENERAL PURPOSE PROCESSORS

MICROCONTROLLERS

SPECIAL PURPOSE PROCESSORS 04/12/2024 11


GENERAL PURPOSE PROCESSORS ARE THOSE THAT ARE USED IN
GENERAL COMPUTER SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND CAN BE USED BY
THE PROGRAMMER FOR ANY APPLICATION. COMMON
MICROPROCESSOR FROM INTEL 8085 TO INTEL PENTIUM IS
EXAMPLE OF GENERAL PURPOSE PROCESSORS.
MICRO-CONTROLLERS ARE MICROPROCESSOR CHIPS WITH BUILT
IN HARDWARE FOR THE MEMORY AND PORTS. THESE CHIPS CAN BE
PROGRAMMED BY THE USER FOR ANY GENERIC CONTROL
APPLICATIONS.
SPECIAL PURPOSE PROCESSORS ARE DESIGNED SPECIFICALLY TO
HANDLE SPECIAL FUNCTIONS REQUIRED FOR AN APPLICATION.
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR ARE EXAMPLE OF SPECIAL PURPOSE
PROCESSORS. THESE HAVE SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS TO HANDLE
04/12/2024 12

THE SIGNAL PROCESSING.


• BASED ON THE ARCHITECTURE AND HARDWARE OF
THE PROCESSORS, THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS
FOLLOWS:-

RISC PROCESSORS

CISC PROCESSORS

VLIW PROCESSOR

SS PROCESSORS
04/12/2024 13
 RISC (REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER) IS A PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE THAT
SUPPORTS LIMITED MACHINE LANGUAGE INSTRUCTIONS. RISC PROCESSORS CAN
EXECUTE PROGRAMS AS FASTER THAN CISC PROCESSORS.

 CISC (COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER) PROCESSORS HAVE ABOUT 70 TO A FEW


HUNDRED INSTRUCTION. THESE ARE EASIER TO PROGRAM. HOWEVER CISC
PROCESSORS ARE SLOWER AND MORE EXPENSIVE THAN RISC PROCESSORS.

 VLIW (VERY LONG INSTRUCTION WORD) PROCESSORS HAVE INSTRUCTIONS COMPOSED


OF MANY MACHINE OPERATIONS. THESE INSTRUCTIONS CAN BE EXECUTED IN
PARALLEL. THIS PARALLEL EXECUTION IS CALLED INSTRUCTION LEVEL PARALLELISM.

 SS (SUPER SCALAR PROCESSORS) USE COMPLEX HARDWARE TO ACHIEVE


PARALLELISM. IT IS POSSIBLE TO HAVE OVERLAPPING OF INSTRUCTION, EXECUTION TO
04/12/2024 14
INCREASE THE SPEED OF EXECUTION.
• ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF MICROPROCESSOR

USED, MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS ARE CLASSIFIED AS

FOLLOWS:-

MICROCOMPUTERS

MINICOMPUTERS

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS 04/12/2024 15


 MICROCOMPUTERS AS NAME IMPLIES MICROCOMPUTERS ARE
SMALLER COMPUTERS.
 THEY CONTAIN ONLY ONE CPU. ONE DISTINGUISHING FEATURE OF
MICROCOMPUTER IS THAT THE CPU IS USUALLY A SINGLE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
CALLED A MICROPROCESSOR.

 MINICOMPUTERS ARE THE SCALED UP VERSION OF THE


MICROCOMPUTERS WITH THE MODERATE SPEED AND STORAGE
CAPACITY.
 THESE ARE DESIGNED TO PROCESS SMALLER DATA WORDS, TYPICALLY 32 BIT
WORD. THESE TYPES OF COMPUTERS ARE USED FOR SCIENTIFIC CALCULATIONS,
RESEARCH, DATA PROCESSING APPLICATION AND MANY MORE.

 MAINFRAME COMPUTERS ARE IMPLEMENTED USING TWO OR


MORE CPU .
 THESE ARE DESIGNED TO WORK AT VERY HIGH SPEEDS WITH LARGE DATA
WORDS LENGTHS, TYPICALLY 64-BITS OR GREATER.
 THE DATA STORAGE CAPACITY OF THESE COMPUTERS IS VERY HIGH. THESE
TYPES OF COMPUTERS ARE USED FOR COMPLEX, SCIENTIFIC CALCULATIONS, 04/12/2024 16

LARGE DATA PROCESSING APPLICATIONS, AND MILITARY DEFENSE CONTROL


AND FOR COMPLEX GRAPHICS APPLICATIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MICROPROCESSOR

• THERE ARE THREE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF


A MICROPROCESSOR. THESE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

 CLOCK SPEED

 WORD SIZE

 INSTRUCTION SET
04/12/2024 17
THE SPEED
CLOCK AT WHICH A MICROPROCESSOR CAN
SPEED
EXECUTE THE INSTRUCTIONS IS CALLED THE CLOCK
SPEED.
BASICALLY CLOCK SPEED IS THE NUMBER OF CYCLES
THAT THE PROCESSOR EXECUTES PER SECOND.
WE MEASURE IT IN MHZ(MEGAHERTZ) OR GHZ
(GIGA HERTZ). HERE, MHZ MEANS 1 MILLION CYCLES
PER SECOND AND GHZ MEANS 1 BILLION CYCLES PER
SECOND.
MOREOVER, A CYCLE BASICALLY MEANS A SINGLE
ELECTRIC CYCLE. BESIDES, EVERY MICROPROCESSOR
04/12/2024 18

HAS AN INTERNAL CLOCK THAT REGULATES THE


WORD SIZE

 IT IS THE NUMBER OF BITS THAT A PROCESSOR CAN PROCESS IN A SINGLE


INSTRUCTION. FURTHERMORE, THE WORD SIZE DECIDES THE AMOUNT OF RAM
THAT THE PROCESSOR CAN ACCESS AT A TIME.

 MOREOVER, IT ALSO DECIDES THE NUMBER OF INPUT AND OUTPUT PINS ON THE
MICROPROCESSOR. THESE PINS IN TO DECIDE THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE
PROCESSOR.

 THE NUMBER OF INPUT AND OUTPUT PINS IS ALWAYS EQUAL.

 FOR EXAMPLE, THE FIRST COMMERCIAL PROCESSOR INTEL 4004 WAS A 4-BIT
PROCESSOR. HENCE, IT HAS 4 INPUT/OUTPUT PINS. TODAY, MOSTLY 32-BIT OR 64-
BIT ARE USED. 04/12/2024 19
INSTRUCTION SET
• AN INSTRUCTION IS BASICALLY A COMMAND WHICH TELLS
THE COMPUTER TO OPERATE ON SOME PIECE OF DATA.
• THE SET OF MACHINE-LEVEL INSTRUCTIONS THAT A
MICROPROCESSOR EXECUTES IS THE INSTRUCTION SET.
• THE OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN THE INSTRUCTIONS CAN BE
AS FOLLOWS:
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
LOGICAL OPERATIONS
DATA TRANSFER
INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS
04/12/2024 20

CONTROL FLOW
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MICRO PROCESSOR
MICROPROCESSOR TYPICALLY CONSISTS OF:

 REGISTER: TEMPORARY STORAGE LOCATION FOR PERFORMING INSTRUCTION OR DATA.

 ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT(ALU): IT PERFORMS ALL ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL


OPERATIONS

 TIMING AND CONTROL CIRCUIT: IT KEEPS ALL OTHER PARTS SYSTEM(REGISTER, ALU,
MEMORY & I/O) WORKING TOGETHER IN RIGHT TIME SEQUENCE.

MICROPROCESSOR IS CONNECTED WITH:

 INPUT DEVICE: IT IS USED TO GIVE THE INPUT DATA TO THE MICROPROCESSOR

 OUT DEVICE: IT IS USED TO PROVIDE THE RESULT OF CALCULATION FROM THE


MICROPROCESSOR 04/12/2024 21

 MEMORY: IT IS USED TO STORE DATA


Features of Microprocessor

 IT GENERATES LESS HEAT AS SEMICONDUCTORS EMIT LESS HEAT IN


COMPARISON TO VACUUM TUBE DEVICES.
 THE MICROPROCESSOR HAS A VERY HIGH SPEED DUE TO ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGY, EXECUTING MILLIONS OF INSTRUCTIONS EVERY SECOND.
 IT CONSUMES LOW POWER BECAUSE OF METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR
TECHNOLOGY.
 ITS SMALL SIZE AND LESS POWER CONSUMPTION MAKE IT PORTABLE AS WELL.
 IT IS SMALL IN SIZE DUE TO LESS FOOTPRINT BUT HAS A LARGE-SCALE
INTEGRATION TECHNOLOGY.
 IT HAS A VERSATILE NATURE AS IT IS USABLE FOR SEVERAL APPLICATIONS.

04/12/2024 22
EVOLUTION OF
MICROPROCESSORS

04/12/2024 23
Evolution of Microprocessors
1. First Generation – 4bit Microprocessors
 The Intel corporation came out with the first generation of
microprocessors in 1971.
 They were 4-bit processors namely Intel 4004.
 The speed of the processor was 740 kHz taking 60k
instructions per second.
 It had 2300 transistors and 16 pins inside.
 Built on a single chip, it was useful for simple arithmetic and
04/12/2024 24

logical operations.
2. Second Generation – 8bit Microprocessor
 The second generation began in 1973 by Intel as the first 8 – bit
microprocessor.
 It was useful for arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words.
 The first processor was 8008 with a clock speed of 500kHz and 50k
instructions per second.
 Followed by an 8080 microprocessor in 1974 with a speed of 2 MHz and
60k instruction per second.
 Lastly came the 8085 microprocessor in 1976 having an ability of 769230
instruction per second with 3 MHz speed.
04/12/2024 25
3. Third Generation – 16bit Microprocessor
 The third generation began with 8086-88 microprocessors in 1978
with 4.77, 8 & 10 MHz speed and 2.5 million instructions per
second.
 Other important inventions were Zilog Z800, and 80286, which
came out in 1982 and could read 4 million instructions per second
with 68 pins inside.

04/12/2024 26
4. Fourth Generation – 32bit Microprocessors
Intel was still the leader as many companies came out with
32-bit microprocessors around 1986.
Their clock speed was between 16 MHz to 33 MHz with 275k
transistors inside.
One of the first ones was the Intel 80486 microprocessor of
1986 with 16-100MHz clock speed and 1.2 Million
transistors with 8 KB of cache memory.
Followed by the PENTIUM microprocessor in 1993 which
04/12/2024 27

had 66 MHz clock speed and 8-bit of cache memory.


5. Fifth Generation – 64bit Microprocessors
 Began in 1995, the Pentium processor was one of the first
64-bit processors with 1.2 GHz to 3 GHz clock speed.
 There were 291 Million transistors and 64kb instruction per
second.
 Followed by i3, i5, i7 microprocessors in 2007, 2009, 2010
respectively.
 These were some of the key points of this generation.

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APPLICATIONS OF MICROPROCESSOR
 Office automation uses it for word processing, spreadsheet operations,
storage, etc.
 The publication uses it for automatic photocopies, high-quality printing,
and good speed.
 Consumers are using it for toys, amusement devices, and house held
devices frequently nowadays.
 It is also present in wireless communication equipment allowing them to
interact and connect with devices.
 It acts as a controller in many home appliances like toasters, televisions,
stereo systems, etc. In the science industry, it is useful for measuring
speed, temperature, moisture, etc.
 The telecom sector uses it for a digital telephone system, telephone
exchange, and modem while the hospitality sector uses it for railway and
airline reservation systems.
04/12/2024 50
Read about the basic number systems and
conversion between different number
systems

04/12/2024 51
•END
04/12/2024 52

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