We assume a particular solution of

1 2
cos sin
ax ax
Ly k e bx k e bx = +
as
1 2
cos sin
ax ax
p
y y Ae bx Ae bx = = +
We assume a particular solution of
0 1
( ... )
ax n
n
Ly e b b x b x = + + +
as
0 1
( ... )
ax n
p n
y y e A Ax A x = = + + +
We also use multiply by the least power of x
rule in case any term of the Given RHS is a
part of the C.F.
Example 8 Find the general solution of
the d.e.
2 2 sin
x
y y y e x
'' '
+ =
Solution We first find the complementary
function.
Auxiliary Equation:
2
2 2 0 m m + =
Roots: m =
Hence the Complementary function is
1 2
( cos sin ),
x
h
y e c x c x = +
c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants

1 i
Now we find the particular solution.
As sin
x
e x is a part of the C.F., we take a
particular solution as
1 2
( cos sin )
x x
y x Ae x A e x = +
1 2 2 1
[( ) cos ( ) sin ]
x x
Dy x A A e x A A e x = + +
1 2
( cos sin )
x x
Ae x A e x + +
2
2 1
[2 cos 2 sin ]
x x
D y x A e x Ae x =
1 2 2 1
[2( ) cos 2( ) sin ]
x x
A A e x A A e x + + +
2
-2
1
Adding, we get
2
( 2 2) D D y + =
2 1
2 cos 2 sin
x x
A e x Ae x
sin
x
e x =
gives
1 2
2 1, 2 0 A A = =
1 2
1
, 0
2
A A = =
or
Hence a particular solution is
cos
2
x
p
x
y e x =
Hence the general solution is
h p
y y y = +
i.e.
1 2
( cos sin )
x
y e c x c x = +
cos
2
x
x
e x
c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants

In this lecture we discuss a general method of
finding a particular solution of a non-
homogeneous l.d.e. (whether it is constant
coefficient equation or not).
Consider the second order l.d.e.
( ) ( ) ( )..(*) y P x y Q x y h x
'' '
+ + =
We assume that we have already found the C.F.
as
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) y c y x c y x = +
The Method of Variation of parameters says:
Take a particular solution of (*) as
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) y v y x v y x = + (**)
where v
1
(x), v
2
(x) are functions of x to be
chosen such that (**) is a solution of (*).
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) y v y x v y x = +
(**)
Differentiating (**) w.r.t. x, we get
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) y v y x v y x v y x v y x
' ' ' ' '
= + + +
We now choose v
1
, v
2
such that
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) 0 .....(1) v y x v y x
' '
+ =
Thus
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) y v y x v y x
' ' '
= +
Differentiating y' w.r.t. x, we get
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) y v y x v y x v y x v y x
'' '' '' ' ' ' '
= + + +
Substituting for y, y', y in (*), we get
| |
| |
| |
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
( )
( ) ( )
v y v y v y v y
P x v y v y
Q x v y v y h x
'' '' ' ' ' '
+ + + +
' '
+ +
+ =
The coefficients of v
1
, v
2
are zero as
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) y v y x v y x
' ' '
= +
y
1
, y
2
are solutions of the associated
homogeneous l.d.e.
( ) ( ) 0 y P x y Q x y
'' '
+ + =
Thus we get
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ....(2) v y x v y x h x
' ' ' '
+ =
Solving (1), (2) we get
1 2
, v v
' '
Integrating, we get
1 2
, v v
The two equations satisfied by
1 2
, v v
' '
are
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) 0 ...........(1) v y x v y x
' '
+ =
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ....(2) v y x v y x h x
' ' ' '
+ =
We note that the determinant of the coefficient
matrix is
1 2
1 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
y x y x
y x y x
=
' '
1 2
[ , ]( ) W y y x
0 =
as y
1
, y
2
are LI solutions of the associated
homogeneous l.d.e. Using Cramers rule, we get
2
2
1
1 2
0 ( )
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
y x
h x y x
v
W y y x
'
'
=
2
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
W y y x

=
1
1
2
1 2
( ) 0
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
y x
y x h x
v
W y y x
'
'
=
1
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
W y y x
=
Integrating, we get
2
1
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
v dx
W y y x

=
}
1
2
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
v dx
W y y x
=
}
And hence a particular solution is
1 1 2 2
( ) ( )
p
y y v y x v y x = = +
Example 1 Find the general solution of the d.e.
4 sec2 y y x
''
+ =
Auxiliary Equation
2
4 0 m + =
Roots: m =
2i
Hence the complementary function is
1 2
cos 2 sin 2
h
y y c x c x = = +
c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants
Hence we take a particular solution as
1 2
cos 2 sin 2 y v x v x = +
where v
1
(x), v
2
(x) are functions of x to be
chosen such that the above is a solution of
the given d.e.
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
1 2
( 2sin 2 ) (2cos 2 ) y v x v x
'
= +
1 2
cos 2 sin 2 v x v x
' '
+ +
We now choose v
1
, v
2
such that
1 2
cos 2 sin 2 0 .....(1) v x v x
' '
+ =
Differentiating y' w.r.t. x, we get
1 2
( 2sin 2 ) (2cos 2 ) y v x v x
'
= +
1 2
( 4cos 2 ) ( 4sin 2 ) y v x v x
''
= +
1 2
( 2sin 2 ) (2cos 2 ) v x v x
' '
+ +
Substituting for y, y', y in the given d.e.,
we get
4 sec2 y y x
''
+ =
1 2
( 4cos 2 ) ( 4sin 2 ) v x v x +
1 2
( 2sin 2 ) (2cos 2 ) v x v x
' '
+ +
1 2
4( cos 2 sin2 ) sec2 v x v x x + + =
1 2
( 2sin 2 ) (2cos 2 ) sec2 v x v x x
' '
+ =
The two equations satisfied by
1 2
, v v
' '
are
1 2
cos 2 sin 2 0 .....(1) v x v x
' '
+ =
1 2
( 2sin 2 ) (2cos 2 ) sec2 ...(2) v x v x x
' '
+ =
Using Cramers rule, we get
We note that the determinant of the coefficient
matrix is
cos 2 sin 2
2sin 2 2cos 2
x x
x x
=

2
0 =
1
0 sin 2
sec2 2cos 2
2
x
x x
v
'
=
1
tan 2
2
x =
2
cos 2 0
2sin 2 sec2
2
x
x x
v

'
=
1
2
=
Integrating, we get
1
ln(sec2 )
4
x
2
v =
1
ln(cos 2 ),
4
x =
1
v =
1
2
x
Hence a particular solution is
1 2
cos 2 sin 2 y v x v x = +
1 1
[ln(cos2 )]cos2 sin2
4 2
x x x x = +
Hence the general solution is
1 2
. . cos 2 sin 2 i e y c x c x = + +
c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants
h p
y y y = +
1 1
[ln(cos2 )]cos2 sin2
4 2
x x x x + +
1
1
ln(cos2 ),
4
v x =
2
1
2
v x =
Example 2 Find the general solution of the d.e.
2 2
( 1) (2 ) (2 ) ( 1) x x y x y x y x
'' '
+ + + = +
We first find the complementary function .
1
x
y y e = =
We assume a second LI solution as
As the sum of the coefficients (of the LHS)
2
( 1) (2 ) (2 ) 0 x x x x = + + + =
is one solution of the C.F.
2 1
y y vy = =
where
2
1
1
P dx
v e dx
y

}
= =
}
2
(2 )
( 1)
2
1
x
dx
x x
x
e dx
e

+
}
}
Now
2
2
( 1)
x
x x

=
+
2
1
( 1)
x
x x

+ =
+
2 1
1
1 x x
+ +
+
Hence
2
(2 )
( 1)
x
dx
x x
e

+
}
=
2 1
(1 )
1
dx
x x
e
+
+
}
2
1
x
x
e
x
+
=
2
(2 )
( 1)
2
1
x
dx
x x
x
v e dx
e

+
}
=
}
Thus
2 2
1 1
x
x
x
e dx
e x
+
=
}
2
1 1
( )
x
e dx
x x

= +
}
1
x
e
x

=
Hence
2 1
y vy = =
1
x

And hence
2
1
y
x
=
is a second LI solution
of the associated homogeneous d.e.
Hence the C.F. is
1 2
1
x
y c e c
x
= +
(c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants)
So let a particular solution be
1 2
1
x
y v e v
x
= +
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
1 2 1 2
2
1 1
( )
x x
y v e v v e v
x x
' ' '
= + + +
We now choose v
1
, v
2
such that
1 2
1
0 ....(1)
x
v e v
x
' '
+ =
Hence
1 2
2
1
( )
x
y v e v
x
'
= +
Differentiating y' w.r.t. x, we get
1 2 1 2
3 2
2 1
( ) ( )
x x
y v e v v e v
x x
'' ' '
= + + +
Substituting for y, y', y in the given d.e.,
1 2 1 2
3 2
2 1
( 1)[ ( ) ( )]
x x
x x v e v v e v
x x
' '
+ + + +
2
1 2
1
(2 )[ ] ( 1)
x
x v e v x
x
+ + = +
2
1 2
2
1
(2 )[ ( )]
x
x v e v
x
+ +
1 2
2
1
( )
x
y v e v
x
'
= +
we get
1 2
2
1 ( 1)
( ) ....(2)
x
x
v e v
x x
+
' '
+ =
The two equations satisfied by
1 2
, v v
' '
are
1 2
1
0 ....(1)
x
v e v
x
' '
+ =
1 2
2
1 ( 1)
( ) ....(2)
x
x
v e v
x x
+
' '
+ =
We note that the determinant of the coefficient
matrix is
2
1 1
x
e
x x
(
+
(

2
1
x
x
e
x
+
(
=
(

Using Cramers rule, we get
2
1
2
1
0
( 1) 1
1
( )
x
x
x
x x
v
x
e
x
+

'
=
+

x
e

=
2
2
0
1
1
( )
x
x
x
e
x
e
x
v
x
e
x
+
'
=
+

x =
Integrating, we get
1
v =
,
x
e

2
v =
2
2
x

Hence a particular solution is

= =
Hence the general solution is
h p
y y y = +
i.e.
1 2
1
x
y c e c
x
= + 1
2
x

c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants
Example 3 Find the general solution of the d.e.
2 ln .
x
y y y e x

'' '
+ + =
Auxiliary Equation
2
2 1 0 m m + + =
Roots: m =
1, 1
Hence the complementary function is
1 2
( )
x x
h
y y c e c xe

= = +
c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants
Hence we take a particular solution as
1 2
x x
y v e v xe

= +
where v
1
(x), v
2
(x) are functions of x to be
chosen such that the above is a solution of the
given d.e.
Thus here
1 2
,
x x
y e y xe

= =
Wronskian = W =
x x
x x x
e xe
e e xe


=

2x
e

Noting that ( ) ln
x
h x e x

= we get
2
1
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
v dx
W y y x

=
}
1
2
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
v dx
W y y x
=
}
2
ln
x x
x
e x xe
dx
e

=
}
ln x x dx =
}
2 2
ln
2 4
x x
x = +
2
ln
x x
x
e x e
dx
e

=
}
ln x dx =
}
ln x x x =
Hence a particular solution is
1 2
x x
p
y y v e v xe

= = +
2 2
( ln )
2 4
x
x x
x e

= + + ( ln )
x
x x x xe

2
2
3
( ln )
2 4
x
x
x x e

=
And the general solution is
h p
y y y = +
i.e.
1 2
x x
y c e c xe

= + +
2
2
3
( ln )
2 4
x
x
x x e

Example 4 Find the general solution of the d.e.

'' '
+ =
Solution Consider the associated homogeneous
equation
z
x e =
Note that
2
2
,
dy d y dy
xy xy
dz dz dz
' ''
= =
2
2 2 0 x y x y y
'' '
+ =
We put
(**)
Auxiliary equation
2
3 2 0 m m + =
Roots m = 1, 2
Solution of Eqn (**) is
2
1 2
z z
y c e c e = +
2
1 2
y c x c x = +
c
1
, c
2
arbitrary constants
i.e. The complementary function of the
given d.e. is
Hence the equation (**) becomes
2
( 3 2) 0 y u u + =
( )
d
dz
u =
So we take a particular solution as
2
1 2
y v x v x = +
Thus here
2
1 2
, y x y x = =
Wronskian = W =
2
1 2
x x
x
=
2
x
Noting that
( )
x
e
h x
x

=
We get
2
1
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
v dx
W y y x

=
}
1
2
1 2
( ) ( )
[ , ]( )
h x y x
v dx
W y y x
=
}
x
e
dx
x

=
}
2
x
e
dx
x

=
}
x x
e e
dx
x x

=
}
Hence a particular solution is
2
1 2 p
y y v x v x = = +
2
x x
x
e e
x dx xe x dx
x x

=
} }
And the general solution is
h p
y y y = +
i.e.
2
1 2
y c x c x = +
2
( )
x
x
e
xe x x dx
x

= +
}
2
( )
x
x
e
xe x x dx
x

+
}