PROPERTIES

AND
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
MATERIALS
Table of contents

01 02 03
PHYSICAL MECHANICAL CHEMICAL

04 05 06 07
THERMAL ELECTRICAL MAGNETIC OPTICAL
PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

Properties of Materials:
● We see a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, and
compositions all around us. Metal, paper,
wood, plastic, and a variety of other materials
are examples. Each item is made up of a
variety of materials that help to define it. We
can choose the type of material to use for
object manufacture based on our needs. When
one substance is mixed with another, it creates
a unique material with specific qualities.
 01
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The physical properties of a material are
those which can be observed without any • Density
change of the identity of material. Some • Specific gravity
of these typical properties of a material • State Change temperatures
are listed • Coefficients of thermal expansion
• Specific Heat
• Latent heat
• Fluidity
• Weld ability
• Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Porosity
• Thermal conductivity
• Electrical Conductivity
Density of a material

Density of a material or substance is defined as “the mass per unit volume”. It is represented as the
ratio of mass with volume of a material. It is denoted by “ρ”. Its unit in SI system is Kg/m3.
If, m is the mass of material in Kg, V is the volume of materiel in meter 3.
Then the Density of material
Specific Gravity of Materials

It is defined as the ratio of density of material with respect to density of a reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation generally water is considered as a reference substance.
State Change Temperatures

● Generally a substance has three states called – solid state, liquid state, gaseous state. State change
temperature is the temperature at which the substance changes from one state to another state.
● State change temperature are of following types-
● Melting point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from solid state to
liquid state.
● Boiling point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from liquid state to
gaseous state.
● Freezing point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which a liquid changes from liquid to solid
state. Theoretically it is equal to the melting point. However, practically there may be observed
some difference.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

● When a material is heated, it expands, due to which its dimensions change. Coefficient of thermal
expansion, represents the expansion in material with increase in temperature. Thermal expansion
coefficients are of three types, namely-
● Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion
The change in length of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of linear
thermal expansion”. It is denoted by “α L”
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘Δl’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the
temperature. Unit of αL is per oC.
● Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion
The change in area of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of Area
thermal expansion”. It denoted by “αA”.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔA’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the
temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.
● Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion
The change in volume of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of volume
thermal expansion”. It denoted by “α V”

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔV’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the
temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.
Specific Heat of Materials

Specific heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit
mass of material by 1oC. It is denoted by ‘S’.

Where, m is the mass of material in Kg. Q is the amount of heat given to material in Joule. Δt is rise in
temperature. Unit of specific heat in SI system is Joule/Kg oC.
Latent Heat of Materials

Latent Heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required/released by change in unit mass of
material from one state to another state (Phase change). It is denoted by ‘L’. Latent heat is given by,

Where, ‘Q’ is the amount of heat required/released by material (in joule), ‘m’ is the mass of material
(in Kg). Unit of Latent heat in SI system is Joule/Kg.
Fluidity of Materials
It is a property of material which represents that how easily a material can flow in liquid state. It is the
reciprocal to viscosity of liquid material.
Weld Ability of Materials
It is the property of a material which presents that how easily the two pieces of material can be welded
together by applying pressure or heat or both.
Elasticity of Materials
It is the property of a material by which it regains its original dimensions on removal of load or force.
Plasticity of Materials
When we keep on increasing the load beyond the limit of elasticity, the material retains it molded state.
This property of materials is called plasticity.
Porosity of Materials
When a material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases within the material. When the
material is solidifies, these gases get evaporated and leave behind voids. The Porosity of material
represents the quantity of voids in solid materials.
Thermal Conductivity of Materials
It is the property of a material which represents that how easily the heat can be conducted by a material.
The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted by unit
thickness of material normal to the unit area surface in unit time when the temperature gradient across
the material piece is unity in steady state condition”.
Its unit in SI system is watts per meter per K.
Electrical Conductivity of Materials
It is the property of materials which represents that how easily the electricity can be conducted by the
material. It is denoted by ‘σ’. It is the reciprocal of resistivity of material. It unit is mho/meter.
 02
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of a
material are those which affect the
• Strength
mechanical strength and ability of a
• Toughness
material to be molded in suitable shape.
• Hardness
Some of the typical mechanical
• Hardenability
properties of a material include:
• Brittleness
• Malleability
• Ductility
• Creep and Slip
• Resilience
• Fatigue
Strength
It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of material in presence of
external forces or load. Materials which we finalize for our engineering products, must have suitable
mechanical strength to be capable to work under different mechanical forces or loads.

Toughness
It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without fracturing. Its
numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit is Joule/ m 3. Value of
toughness of a material can be determined by stress-strain characteristics of a material. For good
toughness, materials should have good strength as well as ductility.
For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough enough. Therefore, to be
tough, a material should be capable to withstand both high stress and strain.
Hardness
It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress. There are various
measure of hardness – Scratch Hardness, Indentation Hardness and Rebound Hardness.

1. Scratch Hardness:
Scratch Hardness is the ability of materials to the oppose the scratches to outer surface layer due to
external force.

2. Indentation Hardness:
It is the ability of materials to oppose the dent due to punch of external hard and sharp objects.

3. Rebound Hardness:
Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is determined by the height of “bounce” of
a diamond tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height on the material.
Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is determined by the
depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI unit of hardenability is meter (similar to length).
Hardenability of material is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of material.

Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to a force or load.
When a brittle material is subjected to a stress it observes very less energy and gets fractures without
significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of material is temperature
dependent. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become brittle at low temperature.

Malleability
Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a material gets deformed
under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to be formed in the
form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity of
material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the malleability of
material increases
Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets deformed under
tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get stretched into a wire by
pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and is
temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the ductility of material increases.

Creep and Slip

Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material to move slowly and deform
permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress. It results due to long time exposure to
large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that are
subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of atoms.
Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by applying
stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy
that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation. It can be
determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from zero to elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m 3.

Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the material. When a material is
subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold value but much below the strength
of material (ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks begin to form at
grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a critical size. This crack propagates
suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure affects the fatigue very much. Square
holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where the fatigue crack initiates.
 03
CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical properties describe the characteristic
ability of a substance to react to form new
substances; they include its flammability and
susceptibility to corrosion. All samples of a pure
substance have the same chemical and physical
properties. Being an Engineer it is important to have the knowledge of
chemical properties of engineering materials. Because most the
engineering materials come into contact with other materials and
react chemically to each other. Due to this chemical reaction they
may suffer from chemical deterioration. Some of the chemical
properties of engineering materials are listed below :

• Chemical composition
• Atomic bonding
• Corrosion resistance
• Acidity or Alkalinity
Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of engineering material indicates the elements which are combined
together to form that material. Chemical composition of a material effects the properties of
engineering materials very much. The strength, hardness, ductility, brittleness, corrosion resistance,
weldability etc. depends on chemical composition of materials.
Hence, we should also have the knowledge of chemical composition of engineering materials. For
Example the Chemical compositions of some materials are listed .
Chemical Composition
Sl. No. Material Chemical Composition

1. Steel Fe, Cr, Ni

2. Brass Cu = 90%, Ni = 10%

3. Bronze 90% Cu, 10% Ni

4. Invar Fe = 64%, Ni = 36%

Cu = 88%, Tin = 10%,

5. Gun Metal
Zn = 2%

German Silver or Nickel Cu = 50%, Zn = 30%, Ni

6.
Silver or Electrum = 20%

Ni = 60%, Cr = 15%, Fe
7. Nichrome
= 25%

Cu = 89 – 95.50% , Tin =
8. Phosphor Bronge
3.50 -10%, P = 1%

Cu = 84%, Mn = 12%, Ni
9. Manganin
= 4%

10. Constantan Cu = 60%, Ni = 40%

Atomic Bonding

Atomic bonding represents how atoms are bounded to each other to form the material. Many
properties, such as melting point, boiling point, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of
materials are governed by atomic bonding of materials. Hence, to understand the properties of
materials, it is very important to study the atomic bonding of materials. Atomic bonds in materials are
of following types,

● Ionic bond – forms by exchanging of valence electrons between atoms.

● Covalent bonds – forms by sharing of electrons between atoms.
● Metallic bonds – found in metals.
Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion is a gradual chemical or electromechemical attack on a metal by its surrounding medium.

Due to the corrosion, metal starts getting converted into an oxide, salt or some other compound.
Corrosion of a metals is effected by many factors such as air, industrial atmosphere, acid, bases, slat
solutions and soils etc. Corrosion has a very adverse effect on materials. Due to corrosion, the strength
and life of a material is reduced.
Corrosion resistance of a material is the ability of material to resist the oxidation in atmospheric
condition. Generally pure metals such as iron, copper, aluminum etc. gets corroded in slowly in
atmosphere. To avoid the corrosion of these metal in pure form, we use these metals in the form of
alloys such as stainless steel, brass, bronze, German silver, Gunmetal etc.
Acidity or Alkalinity

Acidity or Alkalinity is an important chemical property of engineering materials. A material is acetic

or Alkane, it is decided by the ph value of the material. Ph value of a material varies from 0 to 14. Ph
value of 7 is considered to be neutral. Ordinary water is having ph value of 7. The materials which are
having ph value below 7 are called Acetic and Materials which are having ph value greater than 7 are
called alkane. Acidity of Alkalinity of material indicates that how they react with other materials.
 04
THERMAL
PROPERTIES
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
By “thermal property” is meant the response of a material to the • Heat Capacity
application of heat. As a solid absorbs energy in the form of heat, • Thermal Expansion
its temperature rises and its dimensions increase. The energy may • Thermal Conductivity
be transported to cooler regions of the specimen if temperature • Thermal Stresses
gradients exist, and ultimately, the specimen may melt. Heat
capacity, thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity are
properties that are often critical in the practical utilization of
solids
HEAT CAPACITY
A solid material, when heated, experiences an increase in temperature signifying heat capacity that some energy has been
absorbed. Heat capacity is a property that is indicative of a material’s ability to absorb heat from the external
surroundings; it represents the amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise. In mathematical terms, the
heat capacity C is expressed as follows:

where dQ is the energy required to produce a dT temperature change. Ordinarily, specific heat heat capacity is specified
per mole of material (e.g., J/mol-K, or cal/mol-K). Specific heat (often denoted by a lowercase c) is sometimes used; this
represents the heat capacity per unit mass and has various units (J/kg-K, cal/g-K, Btu/lbm- ◦F). There are really two
ways in which this property may be measured, according to the environmental conditions accompanying the transfer of
heat. One is the heat capacity while maintaining the specimen volume constant, Cv; the other is for constant external
pressure, which is denoted Cp. The magnitude of Cp is almost always greater than Cv; however, this difference is very
slight for most solid materials at room temperature and below
HEAT CAPACITY
Vibrational Heat Capacity
In most solids the principal mode of thermal energy assimilation is by the increase in vibrational energy of the
atoms. Again, atoms in solid materials are constantly vibrating at very high frequencies and with relatively small
amplitudes. Rather than being independent of one another, the vibrations of adjacent atoms are coupled by virtue of the
atomic bonding. These vibrations are coordinated in such a way that traveling lattice waves are produced, a phenomenon
represented in Figure 17.1. These may be thought of as elastic waves or simply sound waves, having short wavelengths
and very high frequencies, that propagate through the crystal at the velocity of sound.

Temperature Dependence of the Heat Capacity

The variation with temperature of the vibrational contribution to the heat capacity at constant volume for many
relatively simple crystalline solids is shown in Figure 17.2. The Cv is zero at 0 K, but it rises rapidly with temperature;
this corresponds to an increased ability of the lattice waves to enhance their average energy with ascending temperature.
At low temperatures the relationship between Cv and the absolute temperature T :
THERMAL EXPANSION
Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. The change in length with temperature for a solid
material may be expressed as follows:

where L0 and lf represent, respectively, initial and final lengths with the temperature change from T0 to Tf . The
parameter αl linear coefficient of is called the linear coefficient of thermal thermal expansion expansion; it is a material
property that is indicative of the extent to which a material expands upon heating, and has units of reciprocal temperature
[(◦C)−1 or (◦F)−1].
THERMAL EXPANSION
Of course, heating or cooling affects all the dimensions of a body, with a resultant change in volume. Volume
changes with temperature may be computed from.

where delta V and V0 are the volume change and the original volume, respectively, and αv symbolizes the volume
coefficient of thermal expansion. In many materials, the value of αv is anisotropic; that is, it depends on the
crystallographic direction along which it is measured. For materials in which the thermal expansion is isotropic, αv is
approximately 3αl.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Metals
As noted in Table 17.1, linear coefficients of
thermal expansion for some of the common metals
range between about 5 × 10^-6 and 25 × 10^-6
(◦C)^-1; these values are intermediate in magnitude
between those for ceramic and polymeric materials.
As the following Materials of Importance piece
explains, several low-expansion and controlled-
expansion metal alloys have been developed that
are used in applications requiring dimensional
stability with temperature variations.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Ceramics
Ceramic materials that are to be subjected to
temperature changes must have coefficients of
thermal expansion that are relatively low, and in
addition, isotropic. Otherwise, these brittle
materials may experience fracture as a consequence
of nonunithermal shock form dimensional changes
in what is termed thermal shock, as discussed later
in the chapter
THERMAL EXPANSION
Polymers
Some polymeric materials experience very
large thermal expansions upon heating as indicated
by coefficients that range from approximately 50 ×
10^-6 to 400 × 10^-6 (◦C)^−1. The highest αl
values are found in linear and branched polymers
because the secondary intermolecular bonds are
weak, and there is a minimum of crosslinking. With
increased crosslinking, the magnitude of the
expansion coefficient diminishes; the lowest
coefficients are found in the thermosetting network
polymers such as phenol-formaldehyde, in which
the bonding is almost entirely covalent.
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conduction is the phenomenon by which heat is transported from high- to low-temperature regions of a
substance. The property that characterizes the ability of a material to transfer heat is the thermal conductivity. It is best
defined in terms thermal conductivity of the expression.

where q denotes the heat flux, or heat flow, per unit time per unit area (area being taken as that perpendicular to the flow
direction), k is the thermal conductivity, and dT/dx is the temperature gradient through the conducting medium
 05
ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES
 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
• OHM’S LAW
• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
• ELECTRONIC AND IONIC CONDUCTION
● Electrical properties refer to a • ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES IN SOLIDS
material’s ability to conduct electric • CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND AND ATOMIC BONDING MODELS
current. Electrical properties include • ELECTRON MOBILITY
electrical resistance, high • ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS
conductivity, operators of rebellion, • ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL ALLOYS
dielectric strength, and associated • INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION
• EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION
expenses.
• THE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CARRIER CONCENTRATION
• FACTORS THAT AFFECT CARRIER MOBILITY
• THE HALL EFFECT
• SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE
• CONDUCTION IN IONIC MATERIALS
• ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS
• CAPACITANCE
• FIELD VECTORS AND POLARIZATION
• TYPES OF POLARIZATION
• FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
• DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
• DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
• FERROELECTRICITY
• PIEZOELECTRICITY
OHM’S LAW
One of the most important electrical characteristics of a solid material is the ease with which it transmits an electric
current. Ohm’s law relates the current I—or time
rate of charge passage—to the applied voltage V as follows:

The resistivity ρ is independent of specimen geometry but related to R through the expression where l is the
distance between the two points at which the voltage is measured, and A is the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the direction of the current. The units
for ρ are ohm-meters (Ωm). From the expression for Ohm’s law and Equation 12.2.
Figure 12.1 Schematic representation of the apparatus used to measure
electrical resistivity.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Sometimes, electrical conductivity σ is used to specify the electrical character of a material. It is simply the reciprocal of
the resistivity, or and is indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of conducting an electric current. The
units for σ are reciprocal ohm-meters [(Ωm)−1, or mho/m].

J is the current density, the current per unit of specimen area I/A, and € is the electric field intensity, or the voltage
difference between two points divided by the distance separating them:
ELECTRONIC AND IONIC CONDUCTION

An electric current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in response to forces that act on them from an
externally applied electric field. Positively
charged particles are accelerated in the field direction, negatively charged particles
in the direction opposite. Within most solid materials a current arises from the flow of
electrons, which is termed electronic conduction. In addition, for ionic materials a net In addition, for ionic materials a
net motion of charged ions is possible that produces a current; such is termed ionic conduction.
ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES IN SOLIDS
In all conductors, semiconductors, and many insulating materials, only electronic conduction exists, and the magnitude of
the electrical conductivity is strongly dependent on the number of electrons available to participate in the conduction
process. However, not all electrons in every atom will accelerate in the presence of an electric field. The number of
electrons available for electrical conduction in a particular material is related to the arrangement of electron states or levels
with respect to energy, and then the manner in which these states are occupied by electrons. A thorough exploration of
these topics is complicated and involves principles of quantum mechanics that are beyond the scope of this book; the
ensuing development omits some
concepts and simplifies others.
Schematic plot of electron energy versus interatomic separation for an aggregate of 12 atoms (N = 12). Upon close
approach, each of the 1s and 2s atomic states splits to form an electron energy band consisting of 12 states.
CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND AND
ATOMIC BONDING MODELS

At this point in the discussion, it is vital that another concept be understood—namely, that only electrons with energies
greater than the Fermi energy may be acted on and accelerated in the presence of an electric field. These are the electrons
that participate in the conduction process, which are termed free electrons. Another charged electronic entity called a
hole is found in semiconductors and insulators. Holes have energies less than Ef and also participate in electronic
conduction. As the ensuing discussion reveals, the electrical conductivity is a direct function of the numbers of free
electrons and holes.
Metals

For an electron to become free, it must be excited or promoted into one of the empty and available energy states
above Ef . For metals having either of the band structures shown in Figures 12.4a and 12.4b, there are vacant energy
states adjacent to the highest filled state at Ef . Thus, very little energy is required to promote electrons into the low-
lying empty states.
 Insulators and Semiconductors

For insulators and semiconductors, empty states adjacent to the top of the filled valence band are not available. To
become free, therefore, electrons must be promoted across the energy band gap and into empty states at the bottom of the
conduction band. This is possible only by supplying to an electron the difference in energy between these two states,
which is approximately equal to the band gap energy Eg.
ELECTRON MOBILITY
When an electric field is applied, a force is brought to bear on the free electrons; as a consequence, they all experience an
acceleration in a direction opposite to that of the field, by virtue of their negative charge. According to quantum
mechanics, there is no interaction between an accelerating electron and atoms in a perfect crystal lattice. Under such
circumstances all the free electrons should accelerate as long as the electric field is applied, which would give rise to an
electric current that is 1 The magnitudes of the band gap energy and the energies between adjacent levels in both the
valence and conduction bands of Figure 12.6 are not to scale. Whereas the band gap energy is on the order of an electron
volt, these levels are separated by energies on the order
of 10−10 eV.
Figure 12.6. For an insulator or semiconductor, occupancy of electron states (a) before and (b) after an electron
excitation from the valence band into the conduction band, in which both a free electron and a hole are generated.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS
As mentioned previously, most metals are extremely good conductors of electricity; room-temperature conductivities for
several of the more common metals are contained in Table 12.1. (Table B.9 in Appendix B lists the electrical resistivities
of a large number of metals and alloys.) Again, metals have high conductivities because of the large numbers of free
electrons that have been excited into empty states above the Fermi energy. Thus n has a large value in the conductivity
expression.

Matthiessen’s rule. The influence of each ρ variable on the total resistivity is demonstrated in Figure 12.8, a plot
of resistivity versus temperature for copper and several copper–nickel alloys in annealed and deformed states.
The additive nature of the individual resistivity contributions is demonstrated at –100◦C.
Influence of Temperature

For the pure metal and all the copper–nickel alloys shown in Figure 12.8, the resistivity
rises linearly with temperature above about –200◦C.
Influence of Impurities
For additions of a single For a two-phase alloy consisting of
impurity that forms a solid α and β phases, a rule-of-mixtures
solution, the impurity resistivity expression may be utilized to
ρi is related to the impurity approximate the resistivity as
concentration ci in terms of the follows
atom fraction (at%/100)
as follows:
Influence of Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation also raises the electrical resistivity as a result of increased numbers of electron-scattering
dislocations. The effect of deformation on resistivity is also represented in Figure 12.8. Furthermore, its influence is
much weaker than that of increasing temperature or the presence of impurities.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF COMMERCIAL ALLOYS

Electrical and other properties of copper render it the most widely used metallic conductor. Oxygen-free high-
conductivity (OFHC) copper, having extremely low oxygen and other impurity contents, is produced for many electrical
applications. Aluminum, having a conductivity only about one-half that of copper, is also frequently used as an electrical
conductor. Silver has a higher conductivity than either copper or aluminum; however, its use is restricted on the basis of
cost.
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE

Copper is normally used for electrical wiring in residential and commercial buildings. However, between 1965 and 1973
the price of copper increased significantly, and, consequently aluminum wiring was installed in many buildings
constructed or remodeled during this period because aluminum was a less expensive electrical conductor. An
inordinately high number of fires occurred in these buildings, and investigations revealed that the use of aluminum posed
an increased fire hazard risk over copper wiring.
Aluminum Electrical Wires
There are several options available for making buildings wired
with aluminum safe. The most obvious (and also most
expensive) is to replace all of the aluminum wires with copper.
The next best option is the installation of a crimp connector
repair unit at each aluminum-copper connection.With this
technique, a piece of copper wire is attached to the existing
aluminum wire branch using a specially designed metal sleeve
and powered crimping tool; the metal sleeve is called a
“COPALUM parallel splice connector.” The crimping tool
essentially makes a cold weld between the two wires. Finally,
the connection is encased in an insulating sleeve. A schematic
representation of a COPALUM device is shown in Figure
12.10. Only qualified and specially trained electricians are
allowed to install these COPALUM connectors.
Aluminum Electrical Wires

Two other less-desirable options are

CO/ALR devices and pigtailing. A
CO/ALR device is simply a switch or
wall receptacle that is designed to be
used with aluminum wiring. For
pigtailing, a twist on connecting wire
nut is used, which employs a grease
that inhibits corrosion while
maintaining a high electrical
conductivity at the junction.
Semiconductivity

The electrical conductivity of the semiconducting materials is not as high as that of the metals; nevertheless, they have
some unique electrical characteristics that render them especially useful. The electrical properties of these materials are
extremely sensitive to the presence of even minute concentrations of impurities. Intrinsic semiconductors are those in
which the electrical behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent in the pure material. When the electrical
characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms, the semiconductor is said to be extrinsic.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION
Intrinsic semiconductors are characterized by
The electron band structure found in
the electron band structure shown in Figure
the semiconductors, which is the
12.4d: at 0 K, a completely filled valence band,
same as for insulators except that
separated from an empty conduction band by a
the band gap is relatively narrow (<2
relatively narrow forbidden band gap, generally
eV).
less than 2 eV. The two elemental
semiconductors are silicon (Si) and germanium
(Ge), having band gap energies of
approximately 1.1 and 0.7 eV, respectively.
Concept of a Hole
In intrinsic semiconductors, for every electron excited
into the conduction band there
is left behind a missing electron in one of the covalent
bonds, or in the band scheme,
a vacant electron state in the valence band, as shown
in Figure 12.6b.

This process is expedited by treating a missing electron from the valence band as a positively charged particle
called a hole.
Concept of a Hole

Under the influence

of an electric field,
the position of this
missing electron
within the crystalline
lattice may be thought
of as moving by the
motion of other
valence electrons that
repeatedly fill in the Figure 12.11 Electron bonding model of electrical conduction in intrinsic
incomplete bond silicon:
(Figure 12.11)
(a) before excitation, (b) and (c) after excitation (the subsequent free-
electron and hole motions in response to an external electric field).
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