Sampling

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Sampling
 The process of selecting a portion of the population to
represent the entire population.
 A main concern in sampling:
1. Ensure that the sample represents the
population, and
2. The findings can be generalized.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Why Sample?
 Feasibility: Sampling may be the only feasible method
of collecting information.
 Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on resource
such as finance, personnel, and material.
 Greater speed: Data can be collected and summarized
more quickly
 Efficiency in terms of resource use
 Enhancing accuracy of data

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Disadvantages of sampling
 There is always a sampling error.
 Sampling may create a feeling of
discrimination within the population.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Sampling error

 The deviation between an estimate from an ideal sample and

the true population value is the sampling error.
 There are two types of error in sampling

1. Random error
 Almost always, the sampling frame does not match up perfectly
with the target population, leading to errors of coverage.
 This type of error, arising from the sampling process itself, is
called sampling error, which is a form of random error.
 Random error can be minimized by increasing the size of the
sample. When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 Systematic error (Bias )

 Can't be minimized or eliminated by increasing the sample size

 Can't be eliminated totally but we can minimize it by careful
design of the sampling procedure and not by increasing the sample
size.
 This error can be caused by due to :-

Error in selecting a sample/subject

 Respondent error

Interviewer error

Error in Data collection, entry, analysis and reporting

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 While selecting a Sample, there are basic questions

– What is the group of people (Study population) from which

we want to draw a sample?
– How many people do we need in our sample(sample size)?
– How will these people be selected?
 Sampling frame - the list of all the units in the study population,
from which a sample is to be picked.
 Sampling fraction (Sampling interval) - the ratio of the number
of units in the sample to the number of units in the reference
population (n/N)
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 Cont…
 Target population: the population of interest to whom the researchers would
like to make generalizations.
 Study population: the actual group in which the study is conducted .

 Study unit: the units on which information will be collected: persons, housing
units, etc.
– The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study unit.

– if the objective is to determine the availability of latrine, then the study unit
would be the household
– if the objective is to determine the prevalence of trachoma, then the study
unit would be the individual.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Sampling Methods
Two broad divisions

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Sampling technique

probability sampling technique Non-probability sampling technique

1. SRS 1. Convenience or haphazard

2. Systematic sampling

3. Stratified 2. Volunteer sampling

4. Cluster 3. Judgment sampling

5. Multi stage 4. Quota sampling

6. Sampling with probability 5. Snowball sampling technique

proportional to size 6. Purposive sampling

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 A. Probability sampling
 Involves random selection of a sample
 Every sampling unit has a known and non-zero probability of
selection into the sample.
 Involves the selection of a sample from a population, based on
chance.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Probability sampling is:
– more complex,
– more time-consuming and
– usually more costly than non-probability

sampling.
• However, because study samples are randomly selected and
their probability of inclusion can be calculated,
– reliable estimates can be produced and
– inferences can be made about the population.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 There are several different ways in which a probability sample
can be selected.
 The method chosen depends on a number of factors, such as

– the available sampling frame,

– how spread out the population is,
– how costly it is to survey members of the population

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Most common probability
sampling Technique

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 1. Simple random sampling
 The required number of individuals selected at random
from the sampling frame, a list or a database of all
individuals in the population.
 Each member of a population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units in the population
– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N (where N is the
size of the population)
– Select the required number.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Advantages of simple random sampling

– No bias i.e. no tendency to have too high or too low

statistic when you take many samples. Bias is
consistent, repeated deviation of the sample statistic
from the population parameter in the same direction.
– Small variability (of the values of the statistics from
sample to sample).
• SRS has certain limitations:
– Requires a sampling frame.
– Difficult if the reference population is dispersed.
– Minority subgroups of interest may not be selected.
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 2. Systematic random sampling
 Sometimes called interval sampling.
 Individuals are taken at regular intervals down the list.
 The starting point is chosen at random.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Cont.…
 Important if the reference population is arranged in some
order
-Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration books

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

Steps in systematic random sampling

1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N (where N is

the total population size).

2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the number

of units in the population by the desired sample size.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

3. Select a number between one and K at random. This number is
called the random start and would be the first number included in
your sample.

4. Select every Kth unit after that first number

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Example
 To select a sample of 100 from a population of 400, you would need a
sampling interval of 400 ÷ 100 = 4. Therefore, K = 4.
 You will need to select one unit out of every four units to end up with
a total of 100 units in your sample.
 Select a number between 1 and 4 from a table of random numbers
randomly.

 If you choose 3, the third unit on your frame would be the first
unit included in your sample;
 The sample might consist of the following units to make up a
sample of 100: 3 (the random start), 7, 11, 15, 19...395, 399 (up to
N, which is 400 in thisAndamlak
case). Dendir (Assistant professor)
 If you choose 3, the third unit on your frame would be the
first unit included in your sample;

 The sample might consist of the following units to make up a

sample of 100: 3 (the random start), 7, 11, 15, 19...395, 399
(up to N, which is 400 in this case).

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Using the above example, you can see that with a
systematic sample approach there are only four
possible samples that can be selected,
corresponding to the four possible random starts:

A. 1, 5, 9, 13...393, 397

B. 2, 6, 10, 14...394, 398

C. 3, 7, 11, 15...395, 399

D. 4, 8, 12, 16...396, 400

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 Each member of the population belongs to only one of the
four samples and each sample has the same chance of being
selected.

 The main difference with SRS, any combination of 100 units

would have a chance of making up the sample, while with
systematic sampling, there are only four possible samples.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Systematic sampling
Merits
 Less time consuming easier to perform as
compared to SRS
Demerits
 Systematic sampling should not be used when a
cyclic repetition is inherent in the sampling
frame.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 3. Stratified random sampling

 It is done when the population is known to be have

heterogeneity with regard to some factors and those factors
are used for stratification.
 Using stratified sampling, the population is divided into
homogeneous, mutually exclusive groups called strata, and
 A population can be stratified by any variable that is available
for all units prior to sampling (e.g., age, sex, province of
residence, income, etc.).

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Among strata there is heterogeneity and within
each strata units there is homogeneity.

 A separate sample is taken independently from

each stratum.

 Any of the sampling methods mentioned in this

section (and others that exist) can be used to
sample within each stratum.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Stratified sampling ensures an adequate
sample size for sub-groups in the population of
interest.

• When a population is stratified, each stratum

becomes an independent population and you
will need to decide the sample size for each
stratum.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Equal allocation:
– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
• Proportionate allocation:
n
nj  Nj
N

– nj is sample size of the jth stratum

– Nj is population size of the jth stratum
– n = n1 + n2 + ...+ nk is the total sample size

– N = N1 + N2 + ...+ Nk is the total population

size Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 Example: Proportionate Allocation

• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
• S. size ? ? ? ? 60

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Stratified random sampling
Merit
• The representativeness of the sample is improved.
• adequate representation of minority subgroups
of interest can be ensured by stratification and by
varying the sampling fraction between strata as
required
Demerit
• Sampling frame for the entire population has to
be prepared separately for each stratum.
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 4. Cluster sampling
• The selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead
of the selection of study units individually
• The sampling unit is a cluster, and the sampling frame is
a list of these clusters.
• Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out SRS because
– Population may be large and scattered.
– Complete list of the study population unavailable
– Travel costs can become expensive if interviewers have to
survey people from one end of the country to the other.
• Cluster sampling is the most widely used to reduce the
cost.
• The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike stratified
sampling where the strata are heterogeneous
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 Steps in cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling divides the population into groups
or clusters.
• A number of clusters are selected randomly to
represent the total population, and then all units
within selected clusters are included in the sample.
• No units from non-selected clusters are included in
the sample—they are represented by those from
selected clusters.
• This differs from stratified sampling, where some
units are selected from each group.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Example
• In a school based study, we assume students of
the same school are homogeneous.

• We can select randomly sections and include all

students of the selected sections only

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Advantages
• Cost reduction
• It creates 'pockets' of sampled units instead of
spreading the sample over the whole territory.
• Sometimes a list of all units in the population
is not available, while a list of all clusters is
either available or easy to create.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Disadvantages

• It is usually better to survey a large number of small

clusters instead of a small number of large clusters.
– This is because neighboring units tend to be more
alike, resulting in a sample that does not represent
the whole spectrum of opinions or situations
present in the overall population.
– Hence, sampling error is usually higher than for a
simple random sample of the same size.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to the cluster sampling, except that it
involves picking a sample from within each
chosen cluster, rather than including all units
in the cluster.
• This type of sampling requires at least two
stages.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the
sampling unit in the first sampling stage.

• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the

sampling unit in the second sampling stage,
etc.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

.

Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• In the first stage, large groups or clusters are
identified and selected. These clusters contain
more population units than are needed for the
final sample.

• In the second stage, population units are

picked from within the selected clusters (using
any of the possible probability sampling
methods) for a final sample.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Also, you do not need to have a list of all of the units in
the population. All you need is a list of clusters and list
of the units in the selected clusters.

• Admittedly, more information is needed in this type

of sample than what is required in cluster sampling.

• However, multi-stage sampling still saves a great

amount of time and effort by not having to create a
list of all the units in a population.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Merit and demerit of Multi-stage sampling
Merit
– Cuts the cost of preparing sampling frame in total
population
•Demerit
– Sampling error is increased compared with a simple
random sample
• Multistage sampling gives less precise estimates than simple
random sampling for the same sample size, but the reduction in
cost usually far outweighs this, and allows for a larger sample
size.
• One should consider the design effect if one uses this
(multistage) sampling method and multiply the sample size
calculated by 1.5 or 2.
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 B. Non-probability sampling
• In non-probability sampling, every item has an unknown
chance of being selected.

• In non-probability sampling, there is an assumption that there is

an even distribution of a characteristic of interest within the
population.

• For probability sampling, random is a feature of the selection

process, rather than an assumption about the structure of the
population.

• This is what makes the researcher believe that any sample would
be representative and because of that, results will be accurate.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• In non-probability sampling, since elements
are chosen arbitrarily, there is no way to
estimate the probability of any one element
being included in the sample.

• Also, no assurance is given that each item

has a chance of being included, making it
impossible either to estimate sampling
variability or to identify possible bias

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Reliability cannot be measured in non-probability
sampling; the only way to address data quality is to
compare some of the survey results with available
information about the population.

• Still, there is no assurance that the estimates will

meet an acceptable level of error.

• Researchers are reluctant to use these methods

because there is no way to measure the precision of
the resulting sample.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Despite these drawbacks, non-probability sampling methods can
be useful when descriptive comments about the sample itself are
desired.
 Secondly, they are quick, inexpensive and convenient.
 There are also other circumstances, such as researches, when it
is unfeasible or impractical to conduct probability sampling.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 The most common types of non-probability sampling

1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling technique

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

• Convenience sampling is sometimes referred

to as haphazard or accidental sampling.

• It is not normally representative of the target

population because sample units are only
selected if they can be accessed easily and
conveniently.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• The obvious advantage is that the method is
easy to use, but that advantage is greatly
offset by the presence of bias.

• Although useful applications of the technique

are limited, it can deliver accurate results
when the population is homogeneous.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• For example, a scientist could use this method to
determine whether a lake is polluted or not.

• Assuming that the lake water is well-mixed, any

sample would yield similar information.

• A scientist could safely draw water anywhere on the

lake without bothering about whether or not the
sample is representative

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 2. Volunteer sampling
• As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs
when people volunteer to be involved in the
study.
• In psychological experiments or pharmaceutical
trials (drug testing), for example, it would be
difficult and unethical to enlist random
participants from the general public.
• In these instances, the sample is taken from a
group of volunteers.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to
attract respondents.

• In exchange, the volunteers accept the

possibility of a lengthy, demanding or
sometimes unpleasant process.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Sampling voluntary participants as opposed
to the general population may introduce
strong biases.

• The silent majority does not typically

respond, resulting in large selection bias.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 3. Judgment sampling
• This approach is used when a sample is taken based
on certain judgments about the overall population.

• The underlying assumption is that the investigator

will select units that are characteristic of the
population.

• The critical issue here is objectivity: how much can

judgment be relied upon to arrive at a typical
sample?

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• Researchers often use this method in exploratory
studies like pre-testing of questionnaires and focus
groups.

• They also prefer to use this method in laboratory

settings where the choice of experimental subjects
(i.e., animal, human) reflects the investigator's pre-
existing beliefs about the population.

• advantage of judgment sampling is the reduced cost

and time involved in acquiring the sample.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• The limitation of Judgment sampling is
subject to the researcher's biases and is
perhaps even more biased than haphazard
sampling.

• Since any preconceptions the researcher may

have reflected in the sample, large biases can
be introduced if these preconceptions are
inaccurate.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 4. Quota sampling
• This is one of the most common forms of non-
probability sampling.
• Sampling is done until a specific number of
units (quotas) for various sub-populations have
been selected.
• there are no rules as to how these quotas are
to be filled
• It is really a means for satisfying sample size
objectives for certain sub-populations.
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
• As with all other non-probability sampling
methods, in order to make inferences about
the population, it is necessary to assume that
persons selected are similar to those not
selected.
• Such strong assumptions are rarely valid.
• The main argument against quota sampling is
that it does not meet the basic requirement of
randomness.
• Some units may have no chance of selection or
the chance of selection may be unknown.
• Therefore, the sample may be biased.
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
• Quota sampling is generally less expensive
than random sampling. It is also easy to
administer.
• It is an effective sampling method when
information is urgently required and can be
carried out sampling frames.

• In many cases where the population has no

suitable frame, quota sampling may be the
only appropriate sampling method.
Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
 5. Snowball sampling
• A technique for selecting a research sample
where existing study subjects recruit future
subjects from among their friends sharing
similar experience .
• Thus the sample group appears to grow like a
rolling snowball.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

• This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers
to access; example populations would be drug
users or commercial sex workers.

• Because sample members are not selected from

a sampling frame, snowball samples are subject
to numerous biases. For example, people who
have many friends are more likely to be
recruited into the sample.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

Sample size determination

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

Determining Sample Size

Margin of error (e) is also known as “d”

 Sample Size for Two
Population Means
• One tailed (right or left) test:
n ═ (Zα +Zβ)2 (σ12+σ2 )
2
(µ1–µ2 )2
• Two tailed test:2 2
n ═ (Zα/2 +Zβ) (σ1 +σ22)

(µ1–µ2 )2
 Determining Sample Size for single
population proportion
 To estimate a single population
proportion the required sample size is :-

d=Z α/2
SE =Z α/2√p (1-p)/n
√n= Z α/2√p (1-p)
d
 Most popular and used to calculate

the minimum sample size required.

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)

 Sample Size for Two
Population Proportions

∆ = p1-p2

To perform a one-tailed rather than a two-tailed test, simply

substitute  for /2 in the above sample size formula
 Points to be considered

 If sampling is from a finite population of size N, then n= no___

(1 +no/N)

Where no is the sample from an infinite population.

 The initial sample size approached in the study may need to be increased

in accordance with the expected response rate loss to follow up, lack of

compliance, and any other predicted reasons for loss of subjects.

 Design effect for complex cluster sampling. Common values multiply by

Andamlak Dendir (Assistant professor)
2,3,…5.
WHAT IS VARIABLES
 Any aspect of an individual that is measured
and take any value for different individuals
or cases, like blood pressure, or records, like
age, sex is called a variable.

andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024 70

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

A Variables that can be measured and expressed numerically
 they can be of two types(discrete or continuous).
 Discrete variable
 Their values are usually whole numbers
E.G
• number of episodes of diarrhea in the first five years of life.
• The number of heart beats within a specified time interval
• The number of times a woman has given birth gravidity
• The number of episodes of illness a patient experiences
during some time period
• number of motor vehicle accidents
• etc
 A continuous variable
 Their values are rational number
 Measured by a continuous scale.
Examples include weight, height, blood pressure, age, etc
andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024 71
 QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
/CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
 Variables or characteristics which cannot be
measured in quantitative form but can only be
identified by name or categories
Eg

-place of birth, ethnic group, type of drug,

-stages of breast cancer (I, II, III, or IV),

degree of pain (minimal, moderate, severe or

unbearable).

andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024 72

 STUDY VARIABLE
Dependent variable/outcome variable/response variable
 a variable that is supposed to be caused by one or more other
variables. That is, it is dependent on them.
Independent variable/predictor variable/exposure varaible
 a variable that is supposed to cause one or more other variables
and is not caused by them, That is, it is independent of them.
Intervening variable/ Intermidate variable
 a variable that is the effect of one variable and cause of another.
 it lies between an independent and dependent variables.
 A change in the intervening variable must be ‘caused’ by the
independent variable.
 This change then ‘causes’ the change in the dependent variable.

Andamlak Dendir (MPH,Asst Prof)

 Methods of Data Collection

7 andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024

4
 Data collection
75

• The process of gathering raw facts or evidence

about a subject of interest in a systematic way,
that enables one to answer stated research
questions and evaluate outcomes.

• It can also be defined as gathering of

information (figures, words or responses) that
describes some situation from which
conclusions can be drawn.
andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024 75
04/11/2024
 Source of data
• Involves data collection directly from the
subjects by the researcher or trained
Primary data collector.
• Data collected are specifically for the
purpose of research e.g. Surveys,
Interview, Observations etc

• It involves of use of the data that were

collected for various purposes other than
current research.
Secondary • Eg., diaries, nurses notes, care plans,
patient medication record, statistical
abstracts, census reports neither
04/11/2024 published or unpublished
andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) data 76
 Primary Data
• Tailored according to research needs
• The researcher can determine exactly what
data will be collected and can identify the
Adva
specific tools that will be used.
ntage • Defined and consistent protocol
• Completeness of data is ensured.

• Time consuming
• Rely on subjects recall and communication
abilities
Disad
vanta • Bias may occur due to various factors.
ge • Need to check reliability of raters.

04/11/2024 andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 77

 Secondary Data
• It is easier and quicker.
• Absence of researcher’s biases.
• Economical and time saving
Adva • Participant’s co-operation may not be
ntage necessary & it eliminates the biases related to
participant awareness.
• Accuracy, completeness and reliability depend
upon original individual collecting the data.
• May not be suitable for answering current
Disad research question.
vanta • Missed data and inaccuracy are common.
ge
• Biases are commonly expected

04/11/2024 andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 78

 Data collection methods 79

• Data-collection methods allow us to systematically

collect information about our objects of study (people,
objects) and about the settings in which they occur.

• Data collection tools are instruments that are used

hand in hand with the data collection methods to
collect/retrieve data.

• To avoid confusion in the use of terms, the following

table points out the distinction between techniques
and tools applied in data collection.
andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024 79
04/11/2024
 Data collection techniques and tools

Techniques/method Tools
• Administering written • Questionnaire.
questionnaires.

• Interviewing • Interview guide, checklist,

tape recorder.
• Observation • Eyes and other senses,
pen/paper, microscope.
• Using available information • Check lists, data compilation
forms.

andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 04/11/2024 80

 Types of Data Collection Methods
1. Interview
1. Face to face interview
2. Telephone interview
2. SAQ
3. Observational method.

04/11/2024 andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 81

 Interview
• Involves verbal communication between the researcher and
the subject during which information is provided to the
researcher.
• Interview is a conversation carried art with the definite
purpose of obtaining certain information by means of spoken
word.
• Most common method in qualitative and descriptive studies.
• Investigator collect data directly from the participants by
having face to face contact, to obtain factual data about
opinion, attitude etc.

04/11/2024 andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 82

 Face-to-Face Interviewing
Advantages Disadvantages
• Maximum degree of •High cost due to travel
communication and •Can generate social
interaction desirability for
• Allows for long, sensitive questions
complex interviews •Interviewers can
• Variety of tactics can affect respondents
be used to gain •Can generate
cooperation interviewer variance
• Response rates •Presence of others
usually high can affect responses
•Falsification of
04/11/2024
interview
andamlak Dendir (assistant professor) 83
 Telephone Interviewing
Advantages Disadvantages
• Cost lower than face • Less flexible
to face • No ability to use visual
• More easy to provide aids
training, supervision, • Must be shorter
and feedback • Questions must be less
complicated
• Social desirability
• Less capacity for
bias less than with motivating the respondent
face to face • No coverage of non-
• Interviewer variance telephone units
less • Response rates lower
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 Focus – Group Interviews/ discussion

• In this interviews, homogenous group of 5-10 people

whose opinions and experiences are solicited
simultaneously.
• The interviewer/ researcher guide the discussion
according to written set of questions or topics.
• It is a planned discussion.
• Duration of the interview ranges from 1.5-2 hours.
• All the verbal & non-verbal information is recorded.
• Ample opportunity is given to respondents to express
their views.
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 Methods of interview approach
• Standardized Interviewing Approach
(structured )
– A protocol in which interviewers interact with the
respondent in a manner which is consistent
across all interviewers
• Conversational Interviewing (unstructured)
– A protocol in which interviewers modify and
adapt questions to the respondent’s situation
• Hybrid Interviewing (semi structured )
– Combination of the two approaches
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 Focus – Group Interviews
• Disadvantages
• Advantages
1. Chances of client or
1. Efficient and can generate researcher’s bias.
a lot of information.
2. May be difficult to
2. Stimulates new ideas and moderate by one person.
creative concepts
3. Data difficult to code,
3. Involves many participants analyze and interpret.
at one time.
4. Focus group may not be
4. Participants may feel representative of entire
comfortable to answer in a population.
group with similar
interests.

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 Self administered questionnaire
• Questionnaire - is a structured instrument consisting
of a series of questions prepared by researcher on a
paper and that a subject is asked to complete either
through pencil or through a computer and is used to
gather data r/t phenomenon under study.
Methods of Questionnaire Administration:
1. Direct Administration-Researcher will distribute
the questionnaire and respondent answer items by
writing or checking against correct response.
2. Post or e-mail including all electronic means.
(Mailed questionnaire)

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 Mail questionnaire
Advantages Disadvantages
• Lowest cost • Little control over who
completes the survey
• Low social
desirability • Item non-response high
• Can utilize visual • Response rates lower
aids • Require a long field period
• Allows respondent to obtain an acceptable
to take time and response rate
look up • Respondents must have
information (if good literacy skills
necessary) • Limit to closed-format
• No interviewer
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questions
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 Forms of questions in a questionnaire

In a questionnaires, questions may be formulated as;

Closed ended or
Open ended
In a closed-ended question, the possible answers are set
out in the questionnaire and the respondent ticks the
category that best describes the respondents answer.
E.g.
 Please tick the type of research you would love to undertake.
Applied research Basic Research descriptive research quantitative
In open ended questions, the possible responses are not
given. The respondent writes down the answers in
his/her words. E.g.
 Please explain why you opted for a Bachelors degree in Information technology?
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 Contents of a questionnaire cover letter

• It is essential that you write a cover letter to accompany your

questionnaire. It should very briefly:
• Introduce you and the institution you are representing.
• Describe in two or three lines the main objective of the
study.
• Convey any general instructions.
• Assure respondents of the secrecy of the information
provided by them.
• Provide a contact number incase they have questions.
• Give them a return address for the questionnaire and a
deadline for its return.
• Thank them for their participation.
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 Considerations in formulating questions

– Always use simple and everyday language. Take

extra care to use words that your respondents
will understand as you may no have the
opportunity to explain questions to them. Words
like; “is your family a dipsomaniac” may be
hard for respondents to interpret.

– Do not ask double barrelled questions. A double

barrelled question is a question within a
question. E.g. “How often and how much time
do you spend in the computer lab”?
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 Considerations in formulating questions

– Do not ask leading questions – these are questions in

which, by their nature, contents, structure or wording
leads a respondent to answer in a certain direction.
E.g. “unemployment is increasing at a very high rate
isn’t it” or “smoking is bad isn’t it?”

– The order of questions also matters. Questions should

follow a logical progression based upon the
objectives of the study.

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 OBSERVATION

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 Observation

• It is a technique of collecting all the data or

acquiring information through occurrences
that can be observed through senses, with or
without mechanical devices.
• Use to :
1. understand an ongoing process or situation.
2. gather data on individual behaviors or
interactions between people.
3. know about physical setting.
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 Type of Observational Techniques
• Direct Observation - individuals know they
are being observed
– Continuous Monitoring recording as much
behavior as possible
– Time Allocation randomly visiting the sample
to observe at different times
• Unobtrusive/indirect Observation –
individuals do not know they are being
observed

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 Observation……
Advantages:
1. Collect data where and when an event or activity is
occurring.
2. Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to
provide information.
3. Validity of data is more.

Disadvantages:
4. Susceptible to observer’s biases.
5. Howthrone Effect
6. Expensive & Time consuming.
7. Do not provide data about the rationale of people’s
activities.

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 Common problem in data collection
• Language barriers
• ƒ Lack of adequate time
• ƒ Expense
• ƒ Inadequately trained and experienced staff
• ƒ Invasion of privacy
• ƒ Bias
• ƒ Cultural norms (e.g. which may preclude
men interviewing women)
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 Methods of data organization and presentation

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 Method of data organization
• The data collected in a survey is called raw
data.
• useful information is not immediately evident
from the mass of unsorted data.
• Collected data need to be organized to
condense the information they contain

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 How we organize and present data
• Ordered array
• Frequency distribution table
• Graph
• Charts

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 Ordered array (array)
• It is a serial arrangement of numerical data in
an ascending or descending order.
• enable us to know the range over which the
items are spread
• It is an appropriate way of presentation when
the data are small in size (usually less than 20)

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 Ordered array of age for 169 p1tient

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 THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

 A frequency distribution : listing the values of categories (if

categorical variable)/listing/grouping values of the continuous
variable with their corresponding frequencies

 Frequency distribution table is a statistical table

that lists or shows the values of categorical variables or
list/group the values of continuous variable with their
corresponding frequencies, relative frequency , cumulative
frequency

PH) 104 / 47
 Frequency distribution table

 A frequency distribution has two main parts:

The values of the variable (if quantitative) or the categories (if
qualitative), and

The number of observations (frequency) corresponding to the

respective values or categories.

PH) 105 / 47
 Numerical Frequency
Distribution
Q data are classified according to numerical size.
Q used to summarize interval and ratio data.
Q may be discrete or continuous
There are two types of numerical frequency distribution
1

Discrete (Ungrouped) Frequency Distribution

 simply lists the data values with the corresponding
frequency
 Count the number of times each possible value is repeated

Grouped frequency distribution:-

involves grouping of data into mutually exclusive classes interval
showing the number of observations/frequency in each class interval

PH) Chapter 2 106 / 47

 Continuous frequency distribution (grouped )

 To group a set of observations we select a set of contiguous, no

overlapping intervals such that each value in the set of
observations can be placed in one, and only one, of the intervals.
These intervals are usually referred to as class intervals.
 One of the first step for grouping data into a set of interval is
the determining the number of class interval needed for grouping
• Too few intervals are undesirable because of the resulting loss of information.
• Too many intervals are used, the objective of summarization will not be met.

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 Continuous frequency distribution (grouped )

• A commonly followed rule of thumb states that there should be no fewer

than six intervals and no more than 15.
• The other way of determining the number of class interval is using
formula given by Sturge

k = 1 + 3.322(log10 n),
 where k stands for the number of class intervals
n is the number of values in the data set under consideration.

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 The complete frequency distribution
table
C.limit C.boun C. M Freq. CF > CF RF <RCF >RCF
51-55 50.5-55.5 53 4 4 46 0.08 0.08 1
56-60 55.5-60.5 58 3 7 43 0.06 0.14 0.86
61-65 60.5-65.5 63 4 11 39 0.08 0.22 0.78
66-70 65.5-70.5 68 10 21 29 0.2 0.42 0.58
71-75 70.5-75.5 73 9 30 20 0.18 0.60 0.40
76-80 75.5-80.5 78 7 37 13 0.14 0.74 0.26
81-85 80.5-85.5 83 5 42 8 0.1 0.84 0.16
86-90 85.5-90.5 88 8 50 0 0.16 1 0

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 1. Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete as well as qualitative data.

commonly used diagrammatic presentation of data are:
 Pie chart

 Bar charts

 Histogram

 Frequency

 Frequency
polygon
 Ogive curve

 Line graph

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 Pie Chart

Pie chart: is a circular diagram and the area of the sector of a

circle is used in pie chart.

Pie chart: can used to compare the relation between the whole
and its components

Pie chart: is important for depicting categorical variables with

relatively few categories.

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 Steps in constructing a pie-
chart
Steps in constructing a pie-
chart
1 Construct a frequency table

2 Change the frequency into percentage (P) or fraction

(F)
3 Change the percentages into degrees,
where:
componentpar
Angle of Sector ∗ (9)
t total
= 360◦

4 Draw a circle and divide it

accordingly

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 Pie Chart Example

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 Bar Graphs (simple, multiple and stacked bar
graph)
 Heights of the bar indicates
25 20 20 frequency
20 16
12 12  Frequency in the Y axis and
15
9 categories of variable in the X axis
8
Number

10
5  The bars should be of equal width
and no touching the other bars
0  The different bars should be
Smo Alc Chol DM HTN No F-H separated by equal distances
Exer  Whenever possible, it is advisable
to draw bars in order of magnitude
Risk factor

The distribution of risk factor among cases with 114

andamlak Dendir (assistant professor)
Cardio vascular Diseases 04/11/2024
 Histogram
I A graph which places the class boundaries on the horizontal axis
and the frequencies on a vertical axis
II Class marks and class limits are some times used as quantity on the
X axes.
III Example: Construct a histogram to by using the following
data glucose level for 50 patients is shown below. Construct
The blood
a frequency distribution for the following data.

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 Example

Figure: Grouped Frequency Distributions of 50 Patients glucose

level

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 Histogram Graph

Figure: Histogram Graph of 50 Patients Blood glucose

levelprofessor)
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 Frequency polygon

Line graph of class marks against class frequencies.

To draw a frequency polygon we connect the midpoints of
class boundaries of the histogram by a straight line

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 Ogive (cumulative frequency
polygon)
 A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more
than type) plotted against upper or lower class boundaries
respectively.
 That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis and
the corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along the
vertical axis.
 The points are joined by a free hand curve.
Example: Draw an ogive curve(less than type) for the above data.

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 Ogive (cummulative less than
type)

Figure: Ogive (cumulative less than

type)
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 Stem and Leaf Plots
A stem and leaf plots is a data plot that
uses part of a data value as the stem
and part of the data value as the leaf to
form groups or classes.

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 At an outpatient testing center, the
number of cardiograms performed each
day for 20 days is shown. Construct a
stem and leaf plot for the data.

25 31 20 32 13
14 43 2 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

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 Line graph
 useful for the study of some variables
according to the passage of time.
 The time, in weeks, months or years
is marked along the horizontal axis;
and the value of the quantity that is
being studied is marked on the
vertical axis.
 The distance of each plotted point
above the base-line indicates its
numerical value.
 The line graph is suitable for
depicting a consecutive trend of a
series over a
long period.

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