CHAPTER 8: THE DNA:

Structure, Function, and Discovery

WHAT IS DNA? - “DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and
transmitting the hereditary materials or the genetic instructions from parents to offsprings.”

This is also true for viruses, as most of these entities have either RNA or DNA as their genetic material. For instance, some viruses may have

RNA as their genetic material, while others have DNA as the genetic material. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) contains RNA, which is

then converted into DNA after attaching itself to the host cell.

Apart from being responsible for the inheritance of genetic information in all living beings, DNA also plays a crucial role in the production of

proteins. Nuclear DNA is the DNA contained within the nucleus of every cell in a eukaryotic organism. It codes for the majority of the organism’s

genomes while the mitochondrial DNA and plastid DNA handles the rest.

The DNA present in the mitochondria of the cell is termed mitochondrial DNA. It is inherited from the mother to the child. In humans, there are

approximately 16,000 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA. Similarly, plastids have their own DNA, and they play an essential role in photosynthesis.
Difference of Gene and DNA - Gene and DNA are two terminologies used primarily in the field of genetics. In general,
a gene is a short section of DNA and DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule which carries the genetic instructions or the hereditary materials.
Full-Form of DNA

DNA is known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is an organic compound that has a unique molecular structure. It is found in all

prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

DNA Types

There are three different DNA types:

● A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to the B-DNA form. Dehydrated DNA takes an A form that protects the
DNA during extreme conditions such as desiccation. Protein binding also removes the solvent from DNA, and the DNA
takes an A form.
● B-DNA: This is the most common DNA conformation and is a right-handed helix. The majority of DNA has a B type
conformation under normal physiological conditions.
● Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern. It was discovered by
Andres Wang and Alexander Rich. It is found ahead of the start site of a gene and hence, is believed to play some role in
gene regulation.
DISCOVERY OF DNA
DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss biologist Johannes Friedrich Miescher in 1869 during his research on

white blood cells.

The double helix structure of a DNA molecule was later discovered through the experimental data by James Watson and

Francis Crick. Finally, it was proved that DNA is responsible for storing genetic information in living organisms.
DEOXYRIBOSE AND RIBOSE
Ribose and deoxyribose are monosaccharides or simple sugars.

They are aldopentoses and undergo phosphorylation to form

deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides. They are of great

biological importance that helps in the formation of a blueprint of

an organism that is passed on to generations.

The nucleotides act as the building blocks of nucleic acids and

help them to carry genetic information. Pentose sugar for RNA is

ribose with 5 carbon atoms. Pentose sugar for DNA is

deoxyribose.

Ribose was discovered by Emil Fischer and Oskar Piloty in the

year 1891. Deoxyribose was discovered by Phoebus Levene in

the year 1929. Some differences between deoxyribose and

ribose based on structure, IUPAC name, molar mass, chemical

formula, etc., are given below.

DNA DIAGRAM
The following diagram explains the DNA
structure representing the different parts
of the DNA. DNA comprises a sugar-
phosphate backbone and the nucleotide
bases (guanine, cytosine, adenine and
thymine).
DNA STRUCTURE
The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted ladder. This structure is described as a double-helix, as illustrated in the figure above. It is a nucleic acid, and all

nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of three different components such as sugar,
phosphate groups and nitrogen bases.

The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link the nucleotides together to

form each strand of DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases.

These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following way: A with T, and C with G. These base pairs are essential for the DNA’s double helix structure, which resembles a twisted ladder.

The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the genetic code or the DNA’s instructions.
The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G), which ultimately form the

structure of a nucleotide. The A and G are purines, and the C and T are pyrimidines.

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions. These strands are held together by the hydrogen bond that is present between the two

complementary bases. The strands are helically twisted, where each strand forms a right-handed coil, and ten nucleotides make up a single

turn.

The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance between two consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-bonded bases of the opposite

strands) is 0.34 nm.

CHARGAFF’S RULE

Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, discovered that the number of nitrogenous bases in the DNA was present in equal

quantities. The amount of A is equal to T, whereas the amount of C is equal to G.

A=T; C=G

In other words, the DNA of any cell from any organism should have a 1:1 ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases.
DNA REPLICATION - DNA replication is an important process that occurs during
cell division. It is also known as semi-conservative replication, during which DNA makes a copy of itself.
DNA REPLICATION TAKES PLACE IN 3 STAGES
Step 1: Initiation

The replication of DNA begins at a point known as the origin of replication. The two DNA strands are separated by the DNA helicase. This forms the

replication fork.

Step 2: Elongation

DNA polymerase III reads the nucleotides on the template strand and makes a new strand by adding complementary nucleotides one after the other.

For eg., if it reads an Adenine on the template strand, it will add a Thymine on the complementary strand.

While adding nucleotides to the lagging strand, gaps are formed between the strands. These gaps are known as Okazaki fragments. These gaps or

nicks are sealed by ligase.

Step 3: Termination

The termination sequence present opposite to the origin of replication terminates the replication process. The TUS protein (terminus utilization

substance) binds to terminator sequence and halts DNA polymerase movement. It induces termination.
WHAT IS THE 6 FUNCTION OF THE DNA?

DNA is the genetic material which car­ries all the hereditary information. Genes are the small segments of DNA, consisting mostly of 250

– 2 million base pairs. A gene code for a polypeptide molecule, where three nitrogenous bases sequence stands for one amino acid.

Polypeptide chains are further folded in secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures to form different proteins. As every organism

contains many genes in its DNA, different types of proteins can be formed. Proteins are the main functional and structural molecules in

most organisms. Apart from storing genetic information, DNA is involved in:

● Replication process: Transferring the genetic information from one cell to its daughters and from one generation to the next and
equal distribution of DNA during the cell division
● Mutations: The changes which occur in the DNA sequences
● Transcription
● Cellular Metabolism
● DNA Fingerprinting
● Gene Therapy
WHY IS DNA CALLED A POLYNUCLEOTIDE
MOLECULE
The DNA is called a polynucleotide because the DNA molecule is composed of nucleotides – deoxyadenylate (A)
deoxyguanylate (G) deoxycytidylate (C) and deoxythymidylate (T), which are combined to create long chains called a
polynucleotide. As per the DNA structure, the DNA consists of two chains of polynucleotides.
HOW IS DNA INHERITED FORM EACH PARAENT
Method of DNA inheritance:

1. DNA is inherited from each parent by the process of reproduction.

2. Reproduction is the process of the formation of a new individual to pass down the genetics by the process of fusion of the male and
female gamete.
3. DNA is passed from the mother in the egg. It is passed down from the father in the sperm.
4. The DNA in these cells is haploid i.e. n.
5. When they fertilize it becomes 2n.
6. This ensures that the genetics from both the parents is passed on without disturbing the chromosome number.
7. It is essential to note that there is a lot of variation between brothers and sisters as well.
8. This is due to the large variety of genetics available from both parents and their ancestors.
9. All variations are not visible or dominant in the case of a person. They might be visible in a progeny and not in the next.
10. The only case there is a similarity is the case of identical twins.
11. On recombination, the genes from various previous distant relatives weaken.
Sample Questions:
1

What is the structure of DNA? What are the functions of DNA?

DNA is a double helical structure composed of nucleotides.
The functions of DNA include:
The two helices are joined together by hydrogen bonds. ● Replication
● Gene expression
The DNA also bears a sugar-phosphate backbone.
● Mutation
Q2 ● Transcription

What are the three different types of DNA?

Q5
The three different types of DNA include: What type of DNA is found in humans?
● A-DNA
● B-DNA B-DNA is found in humans. It is a right-handed double-
● Z-DNA
helical structure.
END OF CHAPTER 8

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