Supplementary Slides for

Software Engineering:
A Practitioner's Approach, 5/e
copyright © 1996, 2001
R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use Only

May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level
hen used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Appro
Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.

This presentation, slides, or hardcopy may NOT be used for

short courses, industry seminars, or consulting purposes.

1
 Chapter 20
Object-Oriented Concepts
and Principles

2
 The OO Process Model
identify
candidate
classes
Pla n n in g
Risk Ana lysis construct look-up
nth iteration classes
C usto m e r of system in library
C o m m unic a tio n

put new extract

classes classes
in library if available

engineer
classes
C usto m e r Eng ine e ring , if unavailable
Eva lua tio n C o nstruc tio n & Re le a se
OO analysis
OO design
OO programming
OO testing

3
 The OO Mindset
objects

problem domain

4
 Key Concepts
• classes and class hierarchies
– instances
– inheritance
– abstraction and hiding
• objects
– attributes
– methods
– encapsulation
– polymorphism
• messages

5
 Classes
• object-oriented thinking begins
with the definition of a class
often defined as:
– template
– generalized description
– pattern
– “blueprint” ... describing a collection of similar items
• a metaclass (also called a
superclass) is a collection of
classes
• once a class of items is defined,
a specific instance of the class
can be defined

6
 Building a
class name
Class
attributes:

operations

attributes:
operations:

7
 What is a
Class?
occurrences roles
things organizational units
places
external entities
structures

class name

attributes:

operations:

8
 Encapsulation/
Hiding
The object encapsulates
both data and the logical
procedures required to
manipulate the data method method
#1 #2
data

method
#6

method method
#5 #4

Achieves “information hiding”

9
 Class
Hierarchy
furniture (superclass)

table chair desk "chable"

subclasses of the
furniture superclass

instances of chair

10
 Methods
(a.k.a. Operations,
Services)
An executable procedure that is
encapsulated in a class and is
designed to operate on one or
more data attributes that are
defined as part of the class.
A method is invoked
via message passing.

11
 Message
sender object s
attributes:

receiver object

attributes:
operations:

operations:

message:
[sender, return value(s)]

message: [receiver, operation, parameters]

12
 Supplementary Slides for
Software Engineering:
A Practitioner's Approach,
5/e
copyright © 1996, 2001
R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use Only

May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level
hen used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Appro
Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.

This presentation, slides, or hardcopy may NOT be used for

short courses, industry seminars, or consulting purposes.

13
 Chapter 21
Object-Oriented
Analysis

14
 Domain
Analysis
class taxononmies
techncial literature
SOURCES OF reuse standards DOMAIN
DOMAIN existing applications DOMAIN ANALYSIS
KNOWLEDGE ANALYSIS functional models MODEL
customer surveys
domain languages
expert advice

current/future requirements

15
 OOA- A Generic View
• define use cases
• extract candidate classes
• establish basic class relationships
• define a class hierarchy
• identify attributes for each class
• specify methods that service the attributes
• indicate how classes/objects are related
• build a behavioral model
• iterate on the first five steps

16
 Use
Cases
• a scenario that describes a “thread of
usage” for a system
• actors represent roles people or devices
play as the system functions
• users can play a number of different
roles for a given scenario

17
 Developing a Use
•
Case
What are the main tasks or functions that are
performed by the actor?
• What system information will the the actor
acquire, produce or change?
• Will the actor have to inform the system about
changes in the external environment?
• What information does the actor desire from
the system?
• Does the actor wish to be informed about
unexpected changes?

18
Selecting Classes—
Criteria
retained information
needed services
multiple attributes
common attributes
common operations
essential requirements

19
 Unified Modeling Language
(UML)
User model view. This view represents the system
(product) from the user’s (called “actors” in UML)
perspective.
Structural model view. Data and functionality is
viewed from inside the system. That is, static
structure (classes, objects, and relationships) is
modeled.
Behavioral model view. This part of the analysis
model represents the dynamic or behavioral aspects
of the system.
Implementation model view. The structural and
behavioral aspects of the system are represented as
they are to be built.
Environment model view. The structural and
behavioral aspects of the environment in which the
system is to be implemented are represented. 20
UML: Use-Case
Diagram

21
 CRC
Modeling
class name:

class type: (e.g., device, property, role, event, ...)

class characterisitics: (e.g., tangible, atomic, concurrent, ...)

responsibilities: collaborators:

22
 Guidelines for Allocating

Responsibilities to
Classes
1. System intelligence should be evenly
distributed.
2. Each responsibility should be stated as
generally as possible.
3. Information and the behavior that is related to
it should reside within the same class.
4. Information about one thing should be
localized with a single class, not distributed
across multiple classes.
5. Responsibilities should be shared among
related classes, when appropriate.

23
 Reviewing the CRC
1. All participants in Model
the review (of the CRC model)
are given a subset of the CRC model index cards.
2. All use-case scenarios (and corresponding use-
case diagrams) should be organized into categories.
3. The review leader reads the use-case deliberately.
As the review leader comes to a named object, she
passes the token to the person holding the
corresponding class index card.
4. When the token is passed, the holder of the class
card is asked to describe the responsibilities noted on
the card. The group determines whether one (or more)
of the responsibilities satisfies the use-case
requirement.
5. If the responsibilities and collaborations noted on
the index cards cannot accommodate the use-case,
modifications are made to the cards.
24
 UML: Class
Diagrams

Generalizatio
n- Composite
specialization aggregates

25
UML: Package
Reference

26
Relationships between
Objects

27
 Object-Behavior
Model
1. Evaluate all use-cases to fully understand
the sequence of interaction within the system.
2. Identify events that drive the interaction
sequence and understand how these events
relate to specific objects.
3. Create an event trace [RUM91] for each use-
case.
4. Build a state transition diagram for the
system
5. Review the object-behavior model to verify
accuracy and consistency

28
UML: State
Transition

29
UML: Event
Trace

30
 Supplementary Slides for
Software Engineering:
A Practitioner's Approach,
5/e
copyright © 1996, 2001
R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use Only

May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level
hen used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Appro
Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.

This presentation, slides, or hardcopy may NOT be used for

short courses, industry seminars, or consulting purposes.

31
 Chapter 22
Object-Oriented
Design

32
Object-Oriented
Design
responsibilities
design

message
design

class and object

design

subsystem
design

33
 OOA and OOD
Attributes, operations,
collaborators responsibilities
Object- design
CRC relationship
Index Cards model

message
Use cases design

Class and object

Object-Behavior
design
Model

subsystem
design

THE ANALYSIS MODEL THE DESIGN MODEL

34
 OOA and OOD
Analysis Model Design Model

classes objects
attributes data structures
methods algorithms
relationships messaging
behavior control

35
 Design
• Issues
decomposability—the facility with which a design method helps the
designer to decompose a large problem into subproblems that are
easier to solve;
• composability—the degree to which a design method ensures that
program components (modules), once designed and built, can be
reused to create other systems;
• understandability—the ease with which a program component can be
understood without reference to other information or other modules;
• continuity—the ability to make small changes in a program and have
these changes manifest themselves with corresponding changes in just
one or a very few modules;
• protection—a architectural characteristic that will reduce the
propagation of side affects if an error does occur in a given module.

36
 Generic Components for
OOD
• Problem domain component—the subsystems that are responsible for
implementing customer requirements directly;
• Human interaction component —the subsystems that implement the
user interface (this included reusable GUI subsystems);
• Task Management Component—the subsystems that are responsible
for controlling and coordinating concurrent tasks that may be
packaged within a subsystem or among different subsystems;
• Data management component—the subsystem that is responsible for
the storage and retrieval of objects.

37
Process Flow for
OOD

38
 System Design
Process
• Partition the analysis model into subsystems.
• Identify concurrency that is dictated by the
problem.
• Allocate subsystems to processors and tasks.
• Develop a design for the user interface.
• Choose a basic strategy for implementing
data management.
• Identify global resources and the control
mechanisms required to access them.
• Design an appropriate control mechanism for
the system, including task management.
• Consider how boundary conditions should be
handled.
• Review and consider trade-offs.
39
 System
Design
client request server
subsystem subsystem

contract

request
peer peer
subsystem subsystem
request
contract contract

40
 Subsystem
Example
Control Sensor
request for status
panel assign to zone subsystem
subsystem test status

request for system status request for alarm notification

specification of type of alarm periodic check-in
periodic status check require for configuration update

Central
communication
subsystem

41
 Subsystem Design
•
Criteria
The subsystem should have a well-
defined interface through which all
communication with the rest of the
system occurs.
• With the exception of a small number of
“communication classes,” the classes
within a subsystem should collaborate
only with other classes within the
subsystem.
• The number of subsystems should be
kept small.
• A subsystem can be partitioned
internally to help reduce complexity.

42
Subsystem Collaboration
Table

43
 Object
• Design
A protocol description establishes the interface of an object by
defining each message that the object can receive and the
related operation that the object performs
• An implementation description shows implementation details
for each operation implied by a message that is passed to an
object.
– information about the object's private part
– internal details about the data structures that describe the object’s
attributes
– procedural details that describe operations

44
 Design
Patterns
... you’ll find recurring patterns of
classes and communicating objects in
many object-oriented systems. These
patterns solve specific design
problems and make object-oriented
design more flexible, elegant, and
ultimately reusable. They help
designers reuse successful designs by
basing new designs on prior
experience. A designer who is familiar
with such patterns can apply them
immediately to design problems
without having to rediscover them.
Gamma and his colleagues [GAM95] 45
 Design Pattern
Attributes
• The design pattern name is an abstraction that conveys significant
meaning about it applicability and intent.
• The problem description indicates the environment and conditions that
must exist to make the design pattern applicable.
• The pattern characteristics indicate the attributes of the design that
may be adjusted to enable the pattern to accommodate into a variety
of problems.
• The consequences associated with the use of a design pattern provide
an indication of the ramifications of design decisions.

46
 Supplementary Slides for
Software Engineering:
A Practitioner's Approach,
5/e
copyright © 1996, 2001
R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use Only

May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level
hen used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Appro
Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.

This presentation, slides, or hardcopy may NOT be used for

short courses, industry seminars, or consulting purposes.

47
 Chapter 23
Object-Oriented
Testing

48
 Object-Oriented
Testing
• begins by evaluating the correctness and
consistency of the OOA and OOD models
• testing strategy changes
– the concept of the ‘unit’ broadens due to encapsulation
– integration focuses on classes and their execution across a ‘thread’ or in the
context of a usage scenario
– validation uses conventional black box methods

• test case design draws on conventional

methods, but also encompasses special features
49
 Broadening the View of
“Testing”
It can be argued that the review of OO
analysis and design models is especially
useful because the same semantic
constructs (e.g., classes, attributes,
operations, messages) appear at the
analysis, design, and code level.
Therefore, a problem in the definition of
class attributes that is uncovered during
analysis will circumvent side effects
that might occur if the problem were not
discovered until design or code (or even
the next iteration of analysis).

50
 Testing the CRC
Model
1. Revisit the CRC model and the object-relationship
model.
2. Inspect the description of each CRC index card to
determine if a delegated responsibility is part of the
collaborator’s definition.
3. Invert the connection to ensure that each
collaborator that is asked for service is receiving
requests from a reasonable source.
4. Using the inverted connections examined in step 3,
determine whether other classes might be required or
whether responsibilities are properly grouped among
the classes.
5. Determine whether widely requested
responsibilities might be combined into a single
responsibility.
6. Steps 1 to 5 are applied iteratively to each class
51
and through each evolution of the OOA model.
 OOT
Strategy
• class testing is the equivalent of unit testing
– operations within the class are tested
– the state behavior of the class is examined

• integration applied three different strategies

– thread-based testing—integrates the set of classes required to respond to one
input or event
– use-based testing—integrates the set of classes required to respond to one
use case
– cluster testing—integrates the set of classes required to demonstrate one
collaboration

52
 OOT—Test Case
Design
Berard [BER93] proposes the following approach:
1. Each test case should be uniquely identified and should be
explicitly associated with the class to be tested,
2. The purpose of the test should be stated,
3. A list of testing steps should be developed for each test and
should contain [BER94]:
a. a list of specified states for the object that is to be tested
b. a list of messages and operations that will be exercised as
a consequence of the test
c. a list of exceptions that may occur as the object is tested
d. a list of external conditions (i.e., changes in the environment
external to the software that must exist in order to
properly conduct the test)
e. supplementary information that will aid in understanding or
implementing the test.

53
 OOT Methods: Random
Testing
• Random testing
– identify operations applicable to a class
– define constraints on their use
– identify a miminum test sequence
• an operation sequence that defines the minimum life history
of the class (object)
– generate a variety of random (but valid) test sequences
• exercise other (more complex) class instance life histories

54
 OOT Methods: Partition
Testing
• Partition Testing
– reduces the number of test cases required to test a class in much
the same way as equivalence partitioning for conventional
software
– state-based partitioning
• categorize and test operations based on their ability to change
the state of a class
– attribute-based partitioning
• categorize and test operations based on the attributes that
they use
– category-based partitioning
• categorize and test operations based on the generic function
each performs

55
 OOT Methods: Inter-Class
Testing
• Inter-class testing
– For each client class, use the list of class operators to generate a
series of random test sequences. The operators will send
messages to other server classes.
– For each message that is generated, determine the collaborator
class and the corresponding operator in the server object.
– For each operator in the server object (that has been invoked by
messages sent from the client object), determine the messages
that it transmits.
– For each of the messages, determine the next level of operators
that are invoked and incorporate these into the test sequence

56
 Supplementary Slides for
Software Engineering:
A Practitioner's Approach,
5/e
copyright © 1996, 2001
R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use Only

May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level
hen used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Appro
Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.

This presentation, slides, or hardcopy may NOT be used for

short courses, industry seminars, or consulting purposes.

57
 Chapter 24
Technical Metrics for
Object-Oriented
Systems

58
 Distinguishing
Characteristics
Berard [BER95] argues that the following characteristics require
that special OO metrics be developed:

• Localization—the way in which information is concentrated in a

program
• Encapsulation—the packaging of data and processing
• Information hiding—the way in which information about operational
details is hidden by a secure interface
• Inheritance—the manner in which the responsibilities of one class are
propagated to another
• Abstraction—the mechanism that allows a design to focus on essential
details

59
 Class-Oriented
Metrics
Proposed by Chidamber and Kemerer:
Proposed by Chidamber and Kemerer:
• weighted methods per class
• depth of the inheritance tree
• number of children
• coupling between object
classes
• response for a class
• lack of cohesion in methods

60
 Class-Oriented
Metrics
Proposed by Lorenz and Kidd [LOR94]:

• class size
• number of operations overridden by a
subclass
• number of operations added by a
subclass
• specialization index

61
 Class-Oriented
Metrics
The MOOD Metrics Suite

• Method inheritance factor

• Coupling factor
• Polymorphism factor

62
 Operation-Oriented
Metrics
Proposed by Lorenz and Kidd [LOR94]:

• average operation size

• operation complexity
• average number of parameters per operation

63
 Testability
Metrics
Proposed by Binder [BIN94]:

• encapsulation related
– lack of cohesion in methods
– percent public and protected
– public access to data members

• inheritance related
– number of root classes
– fan in
– number of children and depth of inheritance tree

64
 OO Project
Metrics
Proposed by Lorenz and Kidd [LOR94]:

• number of scenario scripts

• number of key classes
• number of subsystems

65