Classes and Objects:

Operator Overloading
Chapter 10 of Visual C# How to Program, 6/e

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Operator Overloading; Introducing struct
 You can create operators that work with objects of your
own types—via a process called operator overloading.
 You can overload most operators.

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Creating Value Types with struct
 C#’s simple numeric types are value types.
 C#’s simple types like int and double are actually aliases for

struct types—an int is defined by the struct

System.Int32, a long by System.Int64, a double by
System.Double and so on.
 Operator overloading also can be applied to classes.

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Creating Value Types with struct
When to Declare a struct Type
 Microsoft recommends using classes for most new types,

but recommends a struct if:

 the type represents a single value (one memeber)
 the size of an object is 16 bytes or smaller

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Creating Value Types with struct
 Valuetype ComplexNumber (Fig. 10.14) overloads the plus
(+), minus (-) and multiplication (*) operators to enable
programs to add, subtract and multiply instances of class
ComplexNumber using common mathematical notation.

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Creating Value Types with struct
 Important Points
 Unlike a class, you cannot define a parameterless

constructor for a struct.

 The compiler always provides a default constructor that

initializes the struct’s instance variables to their

default values.

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Creating Value Types with struct
 Overloading Guide
 Keyword operator, followed by an operator symbol (such

as +), indicates that a method overloads the specified

operator.
 Overloaded operator methods are required to be public

and static.
 Methods that overload binary operators must take two

arguments—the first is the left operand and the second is

the right operand.
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10.13.3 Class ComplexTest
 Class
ComplexTest (Fig. 10/15) demonstrates the
overloaded operators for adding, subtracting and
multiplying ComplexNumbers.

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Object-Oriented Programming:
Inheritance
Chapter 11 of Visual C# How to Program, 6/e

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Introduction
 Inheritance allows a new class to absorb an existing class’s
members.
 A derived class normally adds its own fields and methods to

represent a more specialized group of objects.

 Inheritance saves time by reusing proven and debugged high-quality

software.

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Introduction (Cont.)
 The direct base class is the base class which the derived class
explicitly inherits.
 An indirect base class is any class above the direct base class in the

class hierarchy.
 The class hierarchy begins with class object.

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Introduction (Cont.)
 The is-a relationship represents inheritance.
 Don’t forget the has-a relationship represents composition

(previous lecture).

 For example, a car is a vehicle, and a truck is a vehicle.

 New classes can inherit from thousands of pre-built classes in class

libraries.

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Base Classes
and Derived
Classes
 several simple examples of base classes and derived
classes.
 Note that base classes are “more general,” and
derived classes are “more specific.”

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Base Classes and
Derived Classes
(Cont.)

 The UML class diagram shows an inheritance

hierarchy representing a university community.
 Each arrow represents an is-a relationship.

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Base Classes and
Derived Classes
(Cont.)

 Now consider the Shape hierarchy in Fig. 11.3.

 We can follow the arrows to identify the is-a
relationships.

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Base Classes and Derived Classes (Cont.)
 Objects of all classes that extend a common base class can be treated
as objects of that base class.
 However, base-class objects cannot be treated as objects of their

derived classes.
 A derived class can customize methods it inherits from its base class.

In such cases, the derived class can override (redefine) the base-
class method with an appropriate implementation.

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protected Members
 A base class’s private members are inherited by derived classes,
but are not directly accessible by derived-class methods and
properties.
 A base class’s protected members can be accessed by members of

that base class and by members of its derived classes, but not by
clients of the class.

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 Base Class

‫الجماهير العريضة‬ Public Members Derived Class

Protected Members

Private Members

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Creating and Using a CommissionEmployee Class
 CommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.4) represents an employee
who is paid a percentage of their sales.

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Creating and Using a CommissionEmployee Class (cont.)
 A colon (:) followed a class name at the end of the class declaration header
indicates that the class extends the class to the right of the colon.
 Every C# class directly or indirectly inherits object’s methods.
 If a class does not specify that it inherits from another class, it implicitly
inherits from object.

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Creating and Using a CommissionEmployee Class (cont.)
 Declaring instance variables as private and providing public properties to
manipulate and validate them helps enforce good software engineering.
 Constructors are not inherited.
 Either explicitly or implicitly, a call to the base-class constructor is made.
 Class object’s default (empty) constructor does nothing.
 Even if a class does not have constructors, the default constructor will call the
base class’s default or parameterless constructor.

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Creating and Using a CommissionEmployee Class (cont.)

CommissionEmployee Method ToString

 Method ToString is special—it’s one of the methods that every class inherits directly
or indirectly from class object.
 Method ToString returns a string representing an object.
 Class object’s ToString method is primarily a placeholder that typically should be
overridden by a derived class.
 To override a base-class method, a derived class must declare a method with keyword
override.
 The method must have the same signature (method name, number of parameters and
parameter types) and return type as the base-class method.

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Creating and Using a CommissionEmployee Class (cont.)

 Figure 11.5 tests class CommissionEmployee.

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Object-Oriented Programming:
More Inheritance
Chapter 11 of Visual C# How to Program, 6/e

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Creating a BasePlusCommissionEmployee Class
without Using Inheritance

The Bad Programmer !

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Creating a BasePlusCommissionEmployee Class without Using Inheritance
(cont.)

 Note the similarity between this class and class Commission­

Employee (Fig. 11.4)—in this example,
Class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest
 Figure 11.7 tests class BasePlusCommissionEmployee.

 we do not yet exploit that similarity.

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Creating a CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee
Inheritance Hierarchy

 Now we declare class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

(Fig. 11.8), which extends class CommissionEmployee
(Fig. 11.4).

The Good Programmer !

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Mark Them as Protected

Override The virtual

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Creating a CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee
Inheritance Hierarchy (cont.)

BasePlusCommissionEmployeeMethod Earnings
 The virtual and abstract keywords indicate that a base-

class method can be overridden in derived classes.

 The override modifier declares that a derived-class method

overrides a virtual or abstract base-class method.

 This modifier also implicitly declares the derived-class

method virtual.
 We need to declare CommissionEmployee’s Earnings

method virtual.

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Creating a CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee
Inheritance Hierarchy (cont.)
 The compiler generates additional errors because base class CommissionEmployee’s
instance variables are private.
 The errors can be prevented by using the public properties inherited from class
CommissionEmployee.

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Fixing the Errors

 Forthe next example, we made class

CommissionEmployee’s instance variables protected.
 We also declared the Earnings method virtual so that

BasePlusCommissionEmployee can override the method.

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Constructors in Derived Classes
• The derived-class constructor, before performing its own tasks,
invokes its direct base class’s constructor.
• This is done either explicitly or implicitly.
• If the base class is derived from another class, the base-class
constructor invokes the constructor of the next class up in the
hierarchy, and so on.

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Software Engineering with Inheritance
 Effectivesoftware reuse improves the software-
development process.
 Object-oriented programming facilitates software reuse,

potentially shortening development time.

 The availability of substantial and useful class libraries

helps deliver the maxi­mum benefits of software reuse

through inheritance.

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Class object

 All classes inherit directly or indirectly from the object class.

 Figure 11.12 summarizes object’s methods.

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 Thank U

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