BEEER23 PartB
BEEER23 PartB
BEEER23 PartB
K.V.V.Prasad
Assistant Professor
UNIT I
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Introduction - Evolution of electronics – Vacuum tubes to nano electronics
Characteristics of PN Junction Diode,
Zener Effect — Zener Diode and its Characteristics.
Bipolar Junction Transistor Configurations and Characteristics of CB
CE
CC
Elementary Treatment of Small Signal CE Amplifier.
Evolution of electronics
The word electronics, actually, this originated from the word electron.
Electronics is a branch of science dealing with theory and use of devices in which electrons travel through
vacuum gas or a semiconductor medium under the influence of applied electric or magnetic field..3
Electronics has evolved
• Vacuum tubes
• Transistor
• Integrated circuits
Vacuum tubes
In 1883 Thomas Alva Edison discovered the electrons can flow from one metal conductor to another through
vacuum
n 1897 John fleming, he applied this Edison effect in inventing a two-element electron tube
called vacuum tube diode.
1906, Lee deforest he utilized the Edison effect to invent another element that is the triode.
grid will control the flow of electron
Transistors Era:
In 1948 three scientists John bardy, Walter Brattain and, William Shockley they developed transistor
base, emitter, and collector are the three terminals of the transistor .
These are two Types NPN,PNP.
Integrated circuits:
in 1958 Jack Kilby he came out with an idea of making the IC.
several components on a single chip.
They are classified as small scale integration, medium scale integration, and large scale integration
ICs.
1950s single transistor, 1960’s wide scale integration less than hundred components per chip, 1966
medium scale integration components per chip 100 to 1000 , 1969 large scale integration 10,000
components per chip, 1975 very large scale integration VLSI, greater than 10,000 components per chip,
number of transistors are the density on the integrated circuit doubles every two years so that is called as
the Moore’s law.
Semiconductor
It has resistivity between Insulator and conductor.
At room temperature “e’ moves from VB to CB
It has -ve temperature coefficient.
Adding of Impurity will increase the conduction
Ge, Si,
Intrinsic materials
EXTRINSIC MATERIALS
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic material
1 part in 10 million
n-type and p-type
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
boron, gallium, and indium.
antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus
Electron versus Hole Flow
Conventional flow, which is indicated by the direction of hole flow.
In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the minority carrier.
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier
When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom remaining acquires a net positive charge: hence
the positive sign in the donor-ion representation
PN Diode
The semiconductor diode is formed by simply bringing these materials together (constructed from the same base—Ge or Si).
Majority carries on ‘n’ layer moves toward the ‘p’ layer and vice versa.
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this
region
Three possibilities: no bias (VD 0 V), forward bias (VD >0 V), and reverse bias (VD < 0 V).
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.
Reverse-Bias Condition (VD 0 V)
Number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will increase due to the large number of
“free” electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage
This widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carriers to overcome, effectively
reducing the majority carrier flow to zero
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse saturation current and is represented by Is.
The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes except for high-power devices.
its level is typically in the nanoampere range for silicon devices and in the low-microampere range for germanium
saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly
and does not change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias potential
Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)
electrons in the n-type material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce
the width of the depletion region
Resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to the n-type material (and of holes from the n-type
material to the p-type material) has not changed in magnitude.
applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can
pass through the junction.
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the Zener region is called the peak inverse
voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).
There is a point where the application of too negative a voltage will result in a sharp change in the characteristics
The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential and is given
the symbol VZ.
The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential
Applications of Diode
Zener Diode
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Zener Diode is one of the most important semiconductor diode that works in reverse bias condition.
A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias condition is called a Zener Diode.
They are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow in both forward and backward directions.
High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode
to make it more conductive and thus the Zener
diodes can easily conduct electricity
compared to other p-n junction diodes.
These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it very thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the
voltage applied is very small.
Forward Biasing
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When the external DC voltage is applied to the PN–junction in such a way that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting
the current flow is called forward biasing.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over and
combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage.
This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and
then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.
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The application of a forward biasing voltage on the
junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents
a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow.
Avalanche breakdown occurs because of the Zener breakdown occurs only because of the high
collision of free electrons with the atoms. electric field in reverse bias condition.
The avalanche breakdown permanently destroys The Zener breakdown does not destroy the PN
the PN junction of the diode. junction of the diode.
In case of avalanche breakdown, the electric field In the Zener breakdown, the electric field across the
across the junction is relatively weak. junction is strong.
Avalanche breakdown occurs at a reverse voltage Zener breakdown takes place at relatively lower
more than Zener voltage. reverse voltage.
Its depletion layer is wider. Its depletion layer is thin.
It is greater than 10V. It ranges from 5 to 10V.
Voltage regulator
31
A DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply is given to the two
PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of majority carriers in these emitter
and collector junctions.
The junctions are forward biased and reverse biased based on our requirement.
Operation of PNP Transistor
Input Characteristics:
Input resistance:
output Characteristics:
Common Emitter
Emitter is common
We have several electrical and electronic circuits that require a DC power supply to operate.
But, due to some technical and economical limitations, we cannot use conventional sources of
DC power such as batteries and DC generators.
In this situation, we use an electronic circuit that can convert AC power into DC power, such a
circuit is known as rectifier.
However, the DC power output of a rectifier is a fluctuating DC voltage and current which may
damage the electronic circuit. Thus, to overcome the problem of variation in voltage, some
voltage regulating devices are used so that we can obtain a steady DC power supply.
An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the load terminals irrespective of
changes in the load is known as regulated power supply. Thus, the primary function of a regulated power supply
is to convert an AC power into a steady DC power. The regulated power supply is sometimes also called as
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a linear power supply.
The regulated power supply ensures that the output power at the load terminals should remain constant even if the
input power varies. The regulated power supply receives an AC power as input and generates a constant DC
power as output. A regulated power supply is basically an embedded circuit consisting of various blocks.
The regulated power supply consists of the following four major parts −
Step-down transformer
58 circuit
Rectifier
DC filter circuit
Voltage regulator
Step-Down Transformer
The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the regulated power supply changes the input AC voltage to the desired lower
voltage value. Also, this transformer provides an electrical isolation between two circuits. The reduced output AC voltage of
the step-down transformer is used as the input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectifier Circuit
The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. It consists of diodes that perform the
rectification process, i.e. conversion of the AC voltage into the DC voltage. However, the output of the rectifier is a pulsating
direct voltage. In practice, a full wave rectifier is used for the rectification due to its technical advantages. This full wave
rectifier can be a center-tapped full-wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier converts both positive and
negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.
Filter Circuit
Since 59the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which has very high ripple content. Hence, the raw output of the
rectifier is undesirable. In order to get a pure ripple free direct voltage, a DC filter circuit is used. We have different types of
filter circuits such as capacitor filter choke input filter, π-filter, and LC filter. Therefore, the filter circuit converts the pulsating
direct voltage into the constant direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.
Voltage Regulator
The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the regulated power supply. It monitors and corrects the fluctuations in the
output voltage of the power supply. The output voltage may change or fluctuate due to any change in the input AC voltage or
the change in the load or change in any physical parameters such as temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage regulator
takes care of this problem. The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage constant at the output terminals.
A zener diode operated in zener region, a transistor series regulator, fixed and variable IC regulators are commonly used in
different regulated power supplies as the voltage regulator.
RC coupled amplifier
Base is 16
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
16=24. easily convert to binary
Number system conversion
It is numeric code in which each digit of decimal number is represented with separate group of bits.
Ex:58
BCD: Pure Binary:
01001 1000 (111010)2
BCD is very simply to encode and decode but length &
Complexity is more implementation.
Other code similar to BCD
Excess-3 Code
Ex:12
Gray code or cyclic code
Error detection and correction
This code used to detect the error and correct the code.
This code is generated by adding the parity bits to original message.
Relation between the message and parity bits is given as 2 r≥m+r+1
Where r= No. of Parity bits, m=No. of Message bits,
EX: 1101 message then r=3 to satisfy the above relation
Parity bit position is given by 20,21,22…… and so on.
Example
Gates
sequential circuits are the ones that depend on clock cycles. They depend entirely on the past as well as the present inputs for
generating output.
• It works at a comparatively slower speed.
• The design of these circuits is comparatively much tougher
than the Combinational Circuit.
• A feedback path exists between the output and the input.
• The circuit is time-dependent.
• Flip-flops constitute the building blocks of such a circuit.
• People mainly use them for storing data and information.
• They possess the capability of storing any data state or retaining an earlier state at any given point.
• Because a Sequential circuit depends on a clock, it usually requires triggering.
• They always possess a memory element.
• For Example – Counters, Flip-flops, etc.
Half Adder
Half adder is a circuit which adds two bits and gives the sum bit along with carry bit.
It can not accept a carry in from previous additions. For that purpose, we need a 3-input
adder called full-adder.
Full adder
Flip-flops Basic memory elements used in sequential circuits are flip-flops.
They are storage devices.
They are formed by using logic gates.
Simplest sequential circuit element.
A modified form of RS flip-flop
D-flip Flop Letter D stands for delay/data
Used for storing information
It has only one data input.
Forbidden state in RS is overcome here.
JK- Flip Flop
T-Flip flop
Counters
Counter is set of flip flops whose states are changes upon giving the pluses as input.
Counter counts the number of pulses applied.
These are two types 1.Synchronous and 2. Asynchronous counters(ripple counter)
Ripple counter is simple to construct.
All flip flops are not triggered simultaneously
D,T Flip flops are used Assy.Counter
For ‘N’bit counter we required the ‘N’ Flip flop and 2 N states are counted.
Ripple counter
Registers
Registers are a group of flip-flops
It is group of flip-flops to store the group of bits(word)
5 Bit Data10110