Groundwater

Physical Geology
 Introduction
• As a geological agent, groundwater contributes to the
decomposition of rocks. This makes the properties of rocks such
as competence, durability and appearance deteriorates and
renders them unsuitable for constructional purposes. Formation
of solution cavities or channels inside calcareous rocks is also
one of the undesirable effects of ground water.
• Groundwater conditions prevailing in some regions may
seriously jeopardize the stability or success of certain civil
engineering structures such as reservoirs, tunnels and dams.
• In dealing with the water supply for constructional activities,
irrigation, industries, domestic requirements, etc., a civil
engineer may have to look towards ground water as a
means/source of water supply.
 Groundwater
• Groundwater lies beneath the ground surface, filling
pores in sediments and sedimentary rocks and fractures
in other rock types
• Represents 0.6% of the hydrosphere (35x the water in
all lakes and rivers combined)
– Resupplied by slow infiltration
of precipitation
– Generally cleaner than surface water
– Accessed by wells
 Groundwater
• It is usually found underground in the cracks and spaces
of soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly
through geological formations of soil, sand and rocks
called aquifers.
 Importance of Groundwater
• It is the largest reservoir of fresh water that is readily
available to humans
• Geological role of ground water
- As an erosion agent
- Helps to keep our rivers flowing
- Acts like a cementing agent, helping sedimentary
rocks form
Fresh Water of the Hydrosphere
 Distribution of Groundwater
• Zone of saturation
- Formation
- Water reaches a zone where all of the open spaces in
sediment and rock are completely filled with
water
- Water within the pores is called the groundwater
- Water Table – the upper limit of the zone of saturation
• Capillary Fringe
- Extends upwards from the water table
- Groundwater is held by surface tension in tiny passages
between grains of soil or sediment
• Zone of Aeration
- Area above the water table
- Includes the capillary fringe and the belt of soil moisture
- Water cannot be pumped by wells
Distribution of Groundwater
 The Water Table
• Subsurface zone in which all rock
openings are filled with water is the
phreatic, or saturated zone
• Top of the saturated zone is the water
table
– Water level at surface of most lakes and
rivers corresponds to local water table
• Above the water table is an unsaturated
region called the vadose zone
• A perched water table is above and
separated from main water table by an
unsaturated zone
– Commonly produced by thin lenses of
impermeable rock (e.g., shales or clays)
within permeable ones
 The Water Table
• The water table is the upper limit of the zone of saturation
• Variations in the water table
- Depth is highly variable
- Varies seasonably and from year to year
- Shape is usually a replica of the surface topography
- Within an aquifer, the water table is rarely horizontal,
but reflects the surface relief due to the capillary effect
(capillary fringe) in soils, sediments and other porous media.
 The Water Table
• Variations in the water table
- Factors that contribute to the irregular surface of the water table
- Water tends to “pile up” beneath high areas
- Variations in rainfall
- Variations in permeability from place to place
• Interaction between groundwater and streams
- Constitutes a basic link in the hydrologic cycle
- Three types of interactions
1. Gaining streams – gain water from the inflow of
groundwater through the streambed
2. Losing Streams – lose water to the groundwater
system by outflow through the streambed
Gaining and Losing Streams
 The Water Cycle
• Also Known as the Hydrologic Cycle or Hydrological Cycle,
describes the continuous movement of water on, above or below
the surface of the earth.
• It shows the continuous movement of water within the Earth and
atmosphere. It is a complex system that includes many different
processes.
• Essentially, liquid water evaporates into water vapor, then
condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the
form of rain and snow.
 The Water Cycle
Water in different phases moves through the atmosphere
(transportation). Liquid water flows across land (runoff), into the
ground (infiltration and percolation), and through the ground
(groundwater). Groundwater moves into plants (plant uptake) and
evaporates from plants into the atmosphere (transpiration). Solid ice
and snow can turn directly into gas (sublimation). The opposite can
also take place when water vapor becomes solid (deposition).
 The Water Cycle
Evaporation
• The transformation of water from liquid to gas phase as it moves
from the ground into the overlying atmosphere.
• Water moves from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere via
evaporation. Evaporation occurs when energy (heat) forces the
bonds that hold water molecules together to break.
• Examples of evaporation include: Hot tea getting cold, Wet
clothes drying in the sun, drying of wet hair
 The Water Cycle
Condensation
• The process by which water vapor in the air is changed into
liquid water; it's the opposite of evaporation.
• Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is
responsible for the formation of clouds.
• Also known as the process where gas has cooled back into a
liquid form. An example is a glass cold water sitting outside on a
hot day. The glass will form water droplets on the outside of the
glass.
 The Water Cycle
Precipitation
• It’s any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor
that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull to the Earth.
Basically, it’s rain.
• Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form
clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form of rain and
snow. Water in different phases moves through the atmosphere
(transportation)
 The Water Cycle
Infiltration
• the process of water being absorbed into the ground; the
downward entry of water into the soil or rock surface. Water
starts as precipitation, when it hits the ground, it must land in a
porous area.
 The Water Cycle
Transpiration - the biological process that occurs mostly in the day.
Water inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the
atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual leave
openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper portion of
the plants and to cool the leaves exposed to the sun.

Sublimation is the conversion between the solid and the gaseous

phases of matter, with no intermediate liquid stage; the process of
snow and ice changing into water vapor (gas) in the air without first
melting into water.
 The Water Cycle
Deposition - occurs when water vapor (gas) changes into ice (solid)
without going through the liquid phase, such as when frost forms on
the ground on clear, cold nights. The process of deposition is the
opposite of sublimation.

Percolation is the movement of water through the soil itself. Finally,

as the water percolates into the deeper layers of the soil, it reaches
ground water, which is water below the surface. Infiltration is
defined as the downward entry of water into the soil or rock surface
and percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous or
fractured rock.
Factors influencing the storage
and movement of groundwater
 Porosity and Permeability
• Porosity - the percentage of total volume of rock or
sediment that consists of voids or openings/pore spaces
– Measurement of a rock’s ability to hold water
– Loose sand has ~30-50% porosity
– Compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity
- Determines how much groundwater can be stored
- Variations can be considerable over short distances
 Porosity and Permeability
• In simple terms, porosity may be described as the amount of
openings present in a rock.
• It may be defined as the “ratio of the volume of voids in a rock
mass to the total volume of the rock expressed in percentage”.
• Porosity present in rocks may be either primary or secondary
- Primary porosity is that which is present in the rock right
from its formation. It describes the pore spaces between grains
that are formed during depositional processes, such as
sedimentation.
- Secondary porosity is the pore space created by subsequent
processes. It is formed from post depositional processes
such as dissolution, reprecipitation, and fracturing.
Porosity and Permeability
 Porosity and Permeability
• Permeability is the ability of the rock to transmit water
through it, i.e., permeable rocks allow the water to pass
through them. This property of rock is due to
interconnected voids present in the rock. Thus,
permeability is dependent on the porosity character of
the rock.
• Factors influencing permeability:
1. Size and shape of constituent grains.
2. Sorting of grains.
3. Continuity and nature of interstices
 Porosity and Permeability

– Interconnectedness of pore spaces

– Most sandstones and conglomerates are porous
and permeable
– Granites, schists, unfractured limestones are impermeable
 Aquifers and Aquitards
• Aquifer – permeable body of saturated rock or sediment
through which transmits groundwater freely
– Sandstone
– Conglomerate
– Well-jointed limestone
– Sand and gravel
– Highly fractured
volcanic rock
• Aquitard
- an impermeable layer that hinders/prevents ground water
flow due to low porosity and/or permeability such as shale,
clay, unfractured crystalline rocks
 Aquifers and Aquitards
- An aquifer is a body of rock and/or sediment that holds groundwater.
Groundwater is the word used to describe precipitation that has infiltrated
the soil beyond the surface and collected in empty spaces underground.
- There are two general types of aquifers: confined and unconfined.
Confined/Artesian aquifers have a layer of impenetrable rock or clay above
them, while unconfined aquifers lie below a permeable layer of soil.
- A common misconception about aquifers is that they are underground
rivers or lakes. While groundwater can seep into or out of aquifers due to
their porous nature, it cannot move fast enough to flow like a river. The
rate at which groundwater moves through an aquifer varies depending on
the rock’s permeability.
- Aquifers naturally filter groundwater by forcing it to pass through small
pores and between sediments, which helps to remove substances from the
water. This natural filtration process, however, may not be enough to
remove all of the contaminants.
 Aquifers- Sierra Nevada Mtns
and foothills
• Aquifer
- Forms in fractured
igneous rock (granitic)
- Porosity and
permeability are low
- Wells are difficult to
locate, yield is low
- Often limits development
Unconfined vs. Confined Aquifers
• Unconfined Aquifer
– Has a water table, and is only
partly filled with water
– Rapidly recharged by
precipitation infiltrating down to the
saturated zone
• Confined Aquifer
– Completely filled with water under
pressure (hydrostatic head)
– Separated from surface by
impermeable confining
layer/aquitard
– Very slowly recharged
 Ground Water Movement
• Movement of ground water
through pores and fractures is
relatively slow (cms or m^3/s to
meters/day) compared to flow of
water in surface streams
– Flow velocities in cavernous
limestones can be much higher
(km/day)
• Flow velocity depends upon:
– Slope of the water table
– Permeability of the rock or
sediment
 Ground Water Movement
Darcy’s Law
– If permeability remains uniform, the velocity of
groundwater will increase as the slope of the water table
increases.
– Hydraulic gradient – the water table slope, determined by
dividing the vertical difference between recharge and
discharge points by length of flow between points
– Hydraulic head – the vertical difference between the
recharge and discharge points
 Problems associated with
groundwater
Treating groundwater as a nonrenewable resource
• In many places, the water available to recharge the aquifer falls
significantly short of the amount being withdrawn
Subsidence
• Ground sinks when water is pumped from wells faster than
natural recharge processes can replace it
Saltwater contamination
• Excessive groundwater withdrawal causes saltwater to be
drawn into wells, thus contaminating the freshwater supply.
• Primarily a problem in coastal areas
 Balancing Withdrawal
and Recharge
• If ground water is withdrawn more
rapidly than it is recharged, the
water table will drop
– Dropping water table can lead to
ground subsidence
• surface of the ground drops as
buoyancy from ground water is
removed, allowing rock or sediment to
compact and sink
– Subsidence can crack foundations,
roads and pipelines
– Areas of extremely high ground water
pumping (such as for crop irrigation
in dry regions) have subsided 7-9
meters
 Groundwater Contamination
Infiltrating water may bring
contaminants down to the water table,
including (but not limited to):
– Pharmaceuticals
– Pesticides/herbicides
– Fertilizers
– Feed lots
– Mercury and gold mining
– Landfill pollutants
– Heavy metals
– Bacteria, viruses and parasites from sewage
– Industrial chemicals (PCBs, TCE)
– Acid mine drainage
– Radioactive waste
– Oil and gasoline
 Groundwater Contamination
One common source of contamination is sewage
• Extremely permeable aquifers, such as coarse gravel, have
such large openings that groundwater may travel long distances
without being cleaned
• Sewage often becomes purified as it passes through a few
dozen meters of an aquifer composed of sand or permeable
sandstone
Sinking a well can lead to groundwater pollution problems
Other sources and types of contamination include substances such
as Highway salt, Fertilizers, Pesticides, Chemical and Industrial
materials.
 Groundwater Contamination

• Contaminated ground water

can be extremely difficult and
expensive to clean up
Saltwater contamination due
to excessive pumping
Features associated with
groundwater
 Wells
• Well - a deep hole dug or drilled
into the ground to obtain water
from an aquifer
– For wells in unconfined aquifers,
water level before pumping is the
water table
– Water table can be lowered by
pumping, a process known as
drawdown
– Water may rise to a level above
the top of a confined aquifer,
producing an artesian well
Springs
• a place where water flows
naturally from rock or
sediment onto the ground
surface
• Occur where the water table
intersects the Earth’s surface.
Also due to pressure changes
or elevation
• Natural outflow of
groundwater
• Can be caused by an aquitard
creating a localized zone of
saturation which is called a
perched water table.
Springs may result from a
perched water table
 Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst

• Caves - naturally-formed underground

chambers
– Acidic ground water dissolves limestone
along joints and bedding planes
• Caves near the surface may collapse
and produce sinkholes
• Rolling hills, disappearing streams,
and sinkholes are common in areas
with karst topography
 Hot Water Underground

• Hot springs - springs in which the water

is warmer than human body temperature
– Ground water heated by nearby magma
bodies or circulation to unusually deep (and
warm) levels within the crust
– Hot water is less dense than cool water and
thus rises back to the surface on its own
• Geysers - hot springs that periodically
erupt hot water and steam
– Minerals often precipitate around geysers as
hot water cools rapidly in the air
 Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy is produced using

natural steam or superheated water
– No CO2 or acid rain are produced (clean
energy source)
– Some toxic gases given off (e.g., sulfur
compounds)
– Can be used directly to heat buildings
– Superheated water can be very corrosive to
pipes and equipment
 Streams and
Groundwater
• Gaining streams - receive water
from the saturated zone
– Gaining stream surface is local water
table

• Losing streams - lose water to the

saturated zone
– Stream beds lie above the water table
– Maximum infiltration occurs through
streambed, producing permanent
“mound” in the water table beneath dry
channel
 Geological Work of
Groundwater
Groundwater dissolves rock
• Groundwater is often mildly acidic
– Contains weak carbonic acid
– Forms when rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide from the air and from
decaying plants
• Carbonic acid reacts with calcite in limestone to form calcium
bicarbonate, a soluble material
 Geological Work of
Groundwater
Karst Topography
• Landscapes that to a large extent have been shaped by the
dissolving power of groundwater
• Some common features include
– Irregular terrain
– Sinkhole or sinks; formed by groundwater slowly dissolving the
bedrock often accompanied by collapse
– Striking lack of surface drainage (streams)
Karsts – dissolving of bedrock or soluble rock types create sinkholes,
caves, etc.