CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION
TO
PROGRAMMING
 PROBLEM SOLVING
 A problem as a question or situation that presents
uncertainty or difficulty.
 For example: Selling a product in the shop is the task
here.
 The problem is to sell Or how a sales person sells a product in
the shop.
 For a sale to happen in a shop you should go through
the following:
 Determine what the unit price of the product is.
 Count the quantity, (how many of the product) and
 Calculate the total amount to be paid by the customer.
 Calculate the change that you have to give back to the
customer.
 Problem Solving Using Computers
 Computers can be programmed to do many
complicated tasks at very high speeds.
 We can use computers as a tool in problem
solving if a problem has:
 It has extensive input and output.
 Its method of solution is too complicated to implement
manually.
 If done manually, it takes an excessively long time to
solve.
 To use the same method of solution to solve the
same problem with different inputs.
 Programming refers to the process of making
(enabling) a machine to perform a particular task
by giving it instructions (programs) and inputs.
 It is the process of solving a problem using
computers.
 A program is a detailed set of instructions
written in a programming language that directs
the computer to solve a problem.
 For the instructions to be carried out, a computer
must execute a program
 that is, the computer reads the program, and then
follows the steps encoded in the program in a precise
order until completion.
 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PHASES
 Software development method is a method of
developing computer programs to solve
problems using a computer.
 The software development method consists of
the following steps:
Requirements Specification
 Consists of understanding exactly
 what the problem is,
 what is needed to solve it,
 what the solution should provide, and
 if there are constraints and conditions.
Analysis
 In the analysis phase we should identify the
following:
 Inputs to the problem, their form, and the input
media to be used
 Outputs expected from the solution, their form,
and the output media to be used
 Any special constraints or conditions
 Formulas or equations to be used
Design
 The next step is to design a method of solution
for the problem.
 A method of solution is also called algorithm
 Algorithm is a series of steps to be performed
in a specific logical order.
 Algorithm can be designed by using either:
 Pseudo codes or
 Flow charts
Implementation
 Translate each step of the algorithm into a language
statement.
 Ends up with a computer program.
 A computer program is a sequence of a finite number
of statements expressed in a programming language in
a specific logical order that, when executed, produce
the solution for a problem.
 This phase consists of
 choosing the appropriate programming language and
 writing a program following the syntax of the language exactly.
Testing and Verification
 Check the correctness of the program and verify that
the program will do what is expected to do.
 Program Verification
 is the process of ensuring that a program meets user
requirements. One of the techniques that can be used for
program verification is Program Testing.
 Program Testing
 is the process of executing a program to demonstrate its
correctness.
 A program must be tested using a sufficiently large
sample of test data sets such that every logical path in
the program is traversed at least once.
 Testing the program consists of :
 Desk-checking- is simply reading through, or
checking the program to make sure that it is
free of errors and that the logic works
 Debugging the program- means to detect,
locate and remove all errors in a computer
program
 Run real-world data
 Testing the program with real data and real users
 It is also advisable to test it with faulty or
incomplete or overwhelming data
Program Documentation
 Prepare documents that explain
 how the program works and
 how to use it.
 Program documentation consists of these elements:
 A concise requirements specification.
 Descriptions of problem inputs, expected outputs, constraints,
and applicable formula
 A pseudocode or flowchart for its algorithm.
 A source program listing.
 A hard copy of a sample test runs of the program.
 A user’s guide explaining to non programmer users how the
program should be used.
 PROGRAM ALGORITHMS
 Algorithm:
 is a sequence of a finite number of steps
arranged in a specific logical order which is
used to develop the solution for a problem
 Pseudocodes and flowcharts can be used
to develop algorithms.
 Pseudocoding and Flowcharting
Pseudocoding:
 Pseudocode is a semiformal, English-like
language with a limited vocabulary that can be
used to design and describe algorithms.
 A pseudocode language is a more appropriate
algorithm description language than any
programming language.
 A pseudocode can be used for:
 Designing algorithms
 Communicating algorithms to users
 Debugging logic errors in program
 Documenting programs for future maintenance and
expansion purposes
 Flowcharting:
 is a graph consisting of geometrical shapes that are connected
by flow lines.
 The geometrical shapes in a flowchart represent the
types of statements in an algorithm.
 The details of statements are written inside the shapes.
 Examples
 Example:1 The following set of instructions
forms a detailed algorithm in pseudo code for
calculating the payment of person.
 Input the three values into the variables Name,
Hours, Rate.
 Calculate Pay = Hours  Rate.
 Display Name and Pay.
PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
 Early programming languages were
designed for specific kinds of tasks.
 Modern languages are more general-
purpose.
 In any case, each language has its own
characteristics, vocabulary, and syntax.
 Many programming languages have
some form of written specification of their
syntax (form) and semantics (meaning).
 Types [Levels] of
Programming Languages
 There is only one programming language
that any computer can actually understand
and execute:
 its own native binary machine language.
 All other languages are said to be high
level or low level according to how
closely they can be said to resemble
machine code.
 1. Low-level languages
 They allow instructions to be written at
the hardware level.
 Thus, a program written in a low-level
language can be
 extremely efficient,
 making optimum use of both computer
memory and processing time.
 However, to write a low-level program
needs
 a substantial amount of time,
 as well as a clear understanding of the inner
workings of the processor itself.
Characteristics of LOW Level Languages:

 They are machine oriented:

 an assembly language program written for
one machine will not work on any other
type of machine unless they happen to use
the same processor chip.
 The program becomes long and time-
consuming to create.
 Each assembly language statement
generally translates into one machine
code instruction,
 2. High-level languages
 They permit faster development of
large programs.
 The final program as executed by the
computer is not as efficient,
 but the savings in programmer time
generally far outweigh the inefficiencies of
the finished product.
 Characteristics of HIGH Level Languages:
 They are not machine oriented:
 they are portable, meaning that a program written for one
machine will run on any other machine for which the appropriate
compiler or interpreter is available.
 They are problem oriented:
 most high level languages have structures and facilities
appropriate to a particular use or type of problem.
 For example, FORTRAN was developed for use in solving
mathematical problems. Some languages, such as
PASCAL were developed as general-purpose languages.
 Statements in high-level languages usually resemble
English sentences or mathematical expressions
 they tend to be easier to learn and understand than
assembly language.
 Each statement in a high level language will be
translated into several machine code instructions.
GENERATIONS OF
PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
 GENERATIONS OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
 1ST GENERATION –
 MACHINE LANGUAGE
 2ND GENERATION –
 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
 3RD GENERATION –
 HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
 4TH GENERATION –
 FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGES
(4GLS)
 1ST GENERATION - MACHINE
LANGUAGE
 In the early days of computer programming all programs
had to be written in machine code.
 For example a short (3 instruction) program might look like this:
0111 0001 0000 1111
1001 1101 1011 0001
1110 0001 0011 1110
 Machine code has several significant disadvantages
associated it:
 It is very difficult to read and write machine code.
 The writing of machine code is extremely time consuming and
error prone.
 Many different machine codes exist (one for each make and
type of computer).
 Machine code executes directly without translation
since it is the actual pattern of 0s and 1s understood by
the computer's memory.
2ND GENERATION - ASSEMBLY
LANGUAGE
 They use symbolic codes instead lists of binary
instructions.
 Consequently programming became more "friendly". An
example of assembly code is given below:
MOV AX, 01
MOV BX, 02
ADD AX, BX
 In assembly language each line of the program
corresponds to one instruction in machine code.
 For a program written in assembly language to be
executable it must be translated into machine code
using a translating program called an assembler.
 …..2ND GENERATION - ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

 There are still significant disadvantages

associated with their use:
 Each model of computer has its own assembly
language associated with it.
 Assembly programming still requires great attention
to detail and hence remains both time consuming
and tedious.
 Because of (2) the risk of program error is not
significantly reduced. It is error prone.
 Assembly language is still a necessity for some
computer programs, such as interfacing with
peripherals
3RD GENERATION - HIGH LEVEL
LANGUAGES
 They are not machine oriented.
 They are independent of the particular
computer.
 4TH GENERATION - FOURTH
GENERATION LANGUAGES (4GLS)
 4GLs are the most modern high level
languages today.
 The user must concentrate more on what
is to be done to solve the problem
 while the how part is entirely (or most of it) left
in the hands of the 4GL.
 LANGUAGE
TRANSLATORS
 LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
 All computer programs run on machine
code that is executed directly on computer
architecture.
 Essentially, machine code is a long series
of bits (i.e. ones and zeroes).
 …LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
 3 types of system software used for
translating the code that a
programmer writes into a form that the
computer can execute (i.e. machine
code).
 These are:
 Assemblers
 Compilers
 Interpreters
 1. Assemblers
 Assembly language code is simply an abbreviated form
of machine code.
 To transform a program, the instructions must be
converted from their mneumonic abbreviations into
their equivalent string of ones and zeroes.
 This transformation process is known as assembling
and is accomplished by an assembler.
 The assembler substitutes the required machine code
for each symbolic names.
 The final result is a machine-language program that
can run on its own at any time without the need of the
assembler.
 2. Compilers
 A compiler converts an entire program written in a high-
level language (called source code) and translates it into
an executable form (called object code).

 Advantages of a Compiler
 Fast in execution
 The object program can be used without the need to of re-
compilation.
 Disadvantages of a Compiler
 Debugging a program is much harder.
 When an error is found, the whole program has to be re-
compiled
 3. Interpreters
 An interpreter takes source code and converts each line
in succession.

 Advantages of an Interpreter
 Good at locating errors in programs
 Debugging is easier
 If an error is removed, there is no need to retranslate
 Disadvantages of an Interpreter
 Execution of an interpreted program is much slower
 No object code is produced.
 For the program to run, the Interpreter must be present.
 C++
PROGRAM
COMPILATION
 C++ PROGRAM COMPILATION
 When a C++ program is written, it must be typed
into the computer and saved to a file.
 A text editor, which is similar to a word processing
program, is used for this task.
 The statements written by the programmer are
called source code, and the file they are saved
in is called the source file.
 After the source code is saved to a file, the
process of translating it to machine language
can begin.
 … C++ PROGRAM COMPILATION

 During the first phase of this process,

 a program called the preprocessor reads the
source code.
 The preprocessor searches for special lines
that begin with the # symbol.
 These lines contain commands that cause the
preprocessor to modify the source code in
some way.
 … C++ PROGRAM COMPILATION
 During the next phase
 the compiler steps through the preprocessed source
code,
 translating each source code instruction into the
appropriate machine language instruction.
 This process will uncover any syntax errors that may
be in the program.
 Syntax errors are illegal uses of key words, operators,
punctuation, and other language elements.
 If the program is free of syntax errors, the compiler
stores the translated machine language instructions,
which are called object code, in an object file.
 … C++ PROGRAM COMPILATION

 C++ is equipped with a library of prewritten code for

performing common operations or sometimes-difficult
tasks.
 For example, the library contains hardware-specific code
for displaying messages on the screen and reading input
from the keyboard.
 It also provides routines for mathematical functions,
such as calculating the square root of a number.
 This collection of code, called the run-time library, is
extensive.
 When the compiler generates an object file, however, it
does not include machine code for any run-time library
routines the programmer might have used.
 … C++ PROGRAM COMPILATION

 During the last phase of the translation

process,
 the linker combines the object file with the
necessary library routines.
 Once the linker has finished with this step, an
executable file is created.
 The executable file contains machine
language instructions, or executable code,
and is ready to run on the computer.
 … C++ PROGRAM COMPILATION

 The following
illustrates the
process of
translating a
source file
into an
executable
file.
 The C++
Preprocessor
 The C++ Preprocessor
 A C++ compiler begins by invoking the preprocessor,
 Preprocessor a program that uses special statements,
known as directives or control statements, that cause
special compiler actions such as:
 File inclusion, in which the file being preprocessed incorporates
the contents of another file;
 Macro substitution, in which one sequence of text is replaced
by another;
 Conditional compilation, in which parts of the source file's
code can be eliminated at compile time under certain
circumstances.
 All preprocessor directives begin with the # symbol
(known as pound or hash), which must occur in the
leftmost column of the line.