CoSc 265

Fundamental of Database
management System

Instructor: Welde Janfa

 Outline
● Data Model
○ Overview
○ Data Models and Their Categories
○ Schemas, Instances, and States
Chapter Two ● Database Architecture
○ Three-Schema Architecture
○ Data Independence
○ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
Database System Concepts ○ Database System Utilities and
and Tools
○ Centralized and Client-Server
Architecture Architectures
○ Classification of DBMSs
 ⚫ Data Model:
◦ A set of concepts that describe
● structure of a database,
● operations for manipulating these structures,
and
● certain constraints that the database should
Data Models obey.
⚫ Data Model Structure and Constraints:
◦ used to define the database structure
◦ Constructs typically include elements (and their data
types) as well as groups of elements (e.g. entity,
record, table), and relationships among such groups
◦ specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times
⚫ Data Model Operations:
◦ used for specifying database retrievals and updates by
referring to the constructs of the data model.
◦ basic model operations (e.g. generic insert, delete,
update) and user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)
 ● Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data
models:
○ Provide concepts that are close to the
way many users perceive data.
■ (Also called entity-based or object-
based data models.)
Categories of Data ● Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
○ Provide concepts that describe details of

Models how data is stored in the computer. These

are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner
through DBMS design and administration
manuals
● Implementation (representational) data
models:
○ Provide concepts that fall between the
above two, used by many commercial
DBMS implementations (e.g. relational
data models used in many commercial
systems).
● Self-Describing Data Models:
○ Combine the description of data with the
data values. Examples include XML, key-
value stores and some NOSQL systems.
 ● Database Schema:
■ The description of a database.
■ Includes descriptions of the database
structure, data types, and the constraints
on the database.
○ Schema Diagram:
■ An illustrative display of (most aspects of)
Schemas versus Instances a database schema.
○ Schema Construct:
■ A component of the schema or an object
within the schema, e.g., STUDENT,
COURSE.
● Database State:
○ The actual data stored in a database at a
particular moment in time. This includes the
collection of all the data in the database.
○ Also called database instance (or occurrence
or snapshot).
■ The term instance is also applied to
individual database components, e.g.
record instance, table instance, entity
instance
 ● Database State:
○ Refers to the content of a database at
a moment in time.
○ Initial Database State:
○ Refers to the database state when it is
initially loaded into the system.
○ Valid State:
Schemas versus Database State ○ A state that satisfies the structure and
constraints of the database.
● Distinction
○ The database schema changes very
infrequently.
○ The database state changes every
time the database is updated.
○ Schema is also called intension.
○ State is also called extension.
Example of a
Database Schema

7
Example of a
Database Schema
 Three-Schema Architecture
● Proposed to support DBMS characteristics
of:
○ Program-data independence.
Database ○ Support of multiple views of the data.
Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
Architecture ● Internal schema
○ describe physical data storage structures and
access paths for the database (e.g indexes).
Typically uses a physical data model.
● Conceptual schema
○ describe the structure and constraints for the
whole database for a community of users.
○ Uses a conceptual or an implementation data
model.
● External schemas
○ describe the various user views.
○ Usually uses the same data model as the
conceptual schema.
Three-Schema Architecture
⚫ Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
◦ Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical data
storage structures and access paths for the database (e.g
indexes).
● Typically uses a physical data model.
◦ Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a
community of users.
● Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
◦ External schemas at the external level to describe the various
user views.
● Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema. 10
The three-schema
architecture
 ● Logical Data Independence:
○ The capacity to change the conceptual
schema without having to change the
external schemas and their associated
application programs.

Data ● Physical Data Independence:

○ The capacity to change the internal
Independence schema without having to change the
conceptual schema.
○ For example, the internal schema may
be changed when certain file structures
are reorganized or new indexes are
created to improve database
performance
○ When a schema at a lower level is
changed, only the mappings between
this schema and higher-level schemas
need to be changed in a DBMS that
fully supports data independence.
 ● Data Definition Language (DDL):
○ Used by the DBA and database
designers to specify the conceptual
schema of a database.
○ In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used

DBMS Languages to define internal and external schemas

(views).
○ In some DBMSs, separate storage
definition language (SDL) and view
definition language (VDL) are used to
define internal and external schemas.
■ SDL is typically realized via DBMS
commands provided to the DBA and
database designers
 ● Data Manipulation Language
(DML):
○ Used to specify database
retrievals and updates
○ DML commands (data
DBMS Languages sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose
programming language (host
language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, C# or Java.
○ Alternatively, stand-alone DML
commands can be applied
directly (called a query
language).
 ● Types of DML
○ High Level or Non-procedural
Language:
■ High-level statements either to be
entered interactively from a display

DBMS Languages
monitor or terminal or to be embedded
in a general-purpose programming
language
■ For example, the SQL relational
language
■ Are “set-at-a-time” or “set-oriented”
■ Also called declarative languages.
○ Low Level or Procedural Language:
■ Low level DML must be embedded in
general-purpose programming
language
■ Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
■ Constructs such as looping are
needed to retrieve multiple records,
along with positioning pointers.
■ Low-level DMLs are also called record-
at-a-time
 ● Stand-alone query language interfaces
○ Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS
interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in
ORACLE)
● Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in

DBMS Interfaces programming languages

○ Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL
(for C, C++, etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
○ Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for
Java, ODBC
○ Database Programming Language
Approach: e.g. ORACLE has PL/SQL,
○ Scripting Languages: PHP (client-side
scripting) s.
● User-friendly interfaces
○ Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.
● Mobile Interfaces: interfaces allowing users to
perform transactions using mobile apps
 ● To perform certain functions such as:
◦ Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes
data conversion tools.
◦ Backing up the database periodically on tape.
◦ Reorganizing database file structures.
Database System ◦ Performance monitoring utilities.
◦ Report generation utilities.

Utilities ◦ Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,

data compression, etc.
◦ Data dictionary / repository:
◦ Used to store schema descriptions and other
information
◦ Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS
software and users/DBA.
◦ Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA
only.
◦ Application Development Environments and CASE
(computer-aided software engineering)
Typical DBMS
Component
Modules
Centralized and ⚫ Centralized
Client-Server DBMS DBMS:
Architectures ◦ Combines
everything into
single system
including-
DBMS software,
hardware, 19
A Physical
Centralized
Architecture

20
 ● There is a dedicated client and server machine in this
system.
● Client
○ Provide appropriate interfaces through a client
software
○ Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or
Client-Server Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.

DBMS ○ Connected to the servers via some form of a

network.
■ (LAN: local area network, wireless
Architectures ● DBMS Server
network, etc.)

○ Provides database query and transaction services

to the clients
○ Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL
servers, query servers, or transaction servers

○ Applications running on clients utilize an

Application Program Interface (API) to access
 ● Specialized Servers with
Specialized functions
○ Print server
○ File server
Basic 2-tier Client-Server ○ DBMS server
○ Web server
Architectures ○ Email server
● Clients can access the specialized
servers as needed
 ● Common for Web applications
● Intermediate Layer called Application Server or
Web Server:
○ Stores the web connectivity software and the
business logic part of the application used to
Three Tier Client-Server access the corresponding data from the
database server
Architecture ○ Acts like a conduit for sending partially
processed data between the database server
and the client.
● Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
○ Database server only accessible via middle
tier
○ Clients cannot directly access database server
○ Clients contain user interfaces and Web
browsers
○ The client is typically a PC or a mobile
device connected to the Web
End of Chapter
Two