Computer Network

• Computer Network is a system in which

multiple nodes are connected to each other to
share information and resources. A computer
network allows sharing of resources between
different nodes connected within it.
 Elements of Computer Network

Computer Network Elements: The objects

basically used in a computer network are
known as Computer Network Elements
(CNEs). There are basically 4 computer
networking elements:
• Computers
• Transmission medium (wired or wireless)
• Protocols
• Network software
 Types of Network
• PAN(Personal Area Network): is the most basic
type of computer network. This network is
restrained to a single person, that is,
communication between the computer devices
is centered only on an individual’s workspace.
PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters
from person to device providing
communication. Its transmission speed is very
high with very easy maintenance and very low
cost.
• LAN(Local Area Network): LAN is the most
frequently used network. A LAN is a computer
network that connects computers through a
common communication path, contained
within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server. It ranges up to 2km
& transmission speed is very high with easy
maintenance and low cost.
• CAN (Campus Area Network): CAN is bigger
than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a
type of computer network that is usually used
in places like a school or colleges. This
network covers a limited geographical area
that is, it spreads across several buildings
within the campus. It ranges from 1km to
5km.
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network): A MAN is
larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical
distance through a shared communication
path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. It
ranges from 5km to 50km. Its transmission
speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and
it comes with a high cost.
• WAN(Wide Area Network): WAN is a type of
computer network that connects computers
over a large geographical distance through a
shared communication path. It is not
restrained to a single location but extends
over many locations. WAN can also be defined
as a group of local area networks that
communicate with each other with a range
above 50km.
 Data and Signals
• One of the major role of Physical layer is to
transfer the data in form of signals through a
transmission medium. It doesn’t matter what
data you are sending, it can be text, audio,
image, video etc. Everything is transferred in
form of signals. This happens because a data
cannot be send as it is over a transmission
medium, it must be converted to a form that
is acceptable by the transmission media,
signals are what a transmission medium carry.
 Analog and Digital
• Both the data and the signal can be represented in form of
analog and digital.
Analog and Digital Data:
Analog data is continuous data that keeps changing over
time, for example in an analog watch, the hour, minute and
second hands keep moving so you infer the time by looking
at it, it keeps changing. On the other hand digital watch
shows you discrete data such as 12:20 AM, 5:30 PM etc. at
a particular moment of time.
Analog and Digital Signals:
Similar to data, a signal can be analog or digital. An analog
signal can have infinite number of values in a given range,
on the other hand a digital signal has limited number of
values in a given range.
 Simple and composite Analog
• A simple analog signal can be represented in
form of sine wave. A sine wave is shown in the
above diagram.
• Unlike sine wave which is smooth and consistent,
composite analog signals or waves are not
smooth and consistent, which means an arc
above the time axis doesn’t necessarily followed
by arc below the time axis. You can imagine them
as a group of sine waves with different
frequency, amplitude and period.
• Digital Signals
• Similar to analog signals, data can be transmitted
in form of digital signals. For example a data that
is converted it into a machine language
(combination of 0s and 1s) such as 1001 can be
represented in form digital signals. 1 represents
high voltage and 0 represents low voltage.
• Bit Rate: A bit rate is measured as bits per
second.
• Bit Length: A bit length is the distance a bit
occupies on the transmission medium.
 Types of Network Topology
• Topology defines the structure of the network
of how all the components are interconnected
to each other.
• Types of Network Topology
There are six types of network topology which
are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree
Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and
Hybrid Topology.
 Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable
or directly connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network
will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to
other topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which
the message is broadcast to all the stations.
 RING TOPOLOGY
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer
will retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other
node and having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
– Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
– Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
 Tree topology
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus
topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all
the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a
root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes
for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-
child hierarchy.
 Mesh topology

• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the

network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through
various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer
to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any
central computer which acts as a central point
of communication.
 Hybrid Topology

• The combination of various different

topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between
different links and nodes to transfer the data.
 Transmission modes
• The way in which data is transmitted from one
device to another device is known as transmission
mode.
• The transmission mode is also known as the
communication mode.
• Each communication channel has a direction
associated with it, and transmission media provide
the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is
also known as a directional mode.
• The transmission mode is defined in the physical
layer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three
categories:
• Simplex mode
• Half-duplex mode
• Full-duplex mode
 Simplex Mode
• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data
flow in one direction.
• A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can
receive the data but cannot send the data.
• This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly
communications require the two-way exchange of data. The
simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not
require any corresponding reply.
• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to
the listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a
keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor can
only be used to display the data on the screen.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of
the communication channel can be utilized during transmission.
 Half Duplex Channel
• In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station
can transmit and receive the data as well.
• Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
• The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in
one direction at a time.
• In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection,
and if any error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to
retransmit the data.
• A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-
talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause,
the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously
will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.
 Full-duplex mode
• In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional,
i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
• Both the stations can send and receive the message
simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel
has traffic moving in one direction, and another channel
has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
• The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of
communication between devices.
• The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a
telephone network. When two people are communicating
with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.
 Transmission media

Transmission media is a communication channel

that carries the information from the sender
to the receiver. Data is transmitted through
the electromagnetic signals.
 Causes Of Transmission
Impairment:
• Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of
energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which
causes the loss of energy.
• Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a
change in the shape of the signal.
• Noise: When data is travelled over a
transmission medium, some unwanted signal
is added to it which creates the noise.
 Classification Of Transmission
Media:
It is of two types:
• Guided Transmission Media
• UnGuided Transmission Media
• Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired
or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a
narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
 Twisted Pair Cable –
• There are 3 major types of Guided Media: (i)
Twisted Pair Cable –
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a
pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to
other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
lightweight cable. The frequency range for
twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
 Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cable is very commonly used

transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains
two conductors parallel to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to
Twisted pair cable.
 Optical fibre
• Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical
fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibres
from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference
from other types of wiring.
• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission
than copper wires.
 Unguided media
• There are 3 types of Signals transmitted
through unguided media:
Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate
through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission.
• Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending
and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered
by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz
– 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television
distribution.
Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short
distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents
interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
 Network Models
• OSI model
• TCP/IP model
 Open Systems Interconnection
• OSI stands for Open Systems
Interconnection. It was developed by ISO –
‘International Organization for
Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-
layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform. All these 7
layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the
globe.
 Physical Layer – Layer 1
• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
 Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC-Media access control addresses) of the sender and/or receiver
in the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may
get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be
sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Functions of the Network Layer
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine
which route is suitable from source to destination.
This function of the network layer is known as
routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on
Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines
an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
 Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the
message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the
correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
 Session Layer
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The
layer allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate
a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to
start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-
duplex.
 Presentation Layer
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption
translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits
that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Application Layer

• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of

layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves
as a window for the application services to access
the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
• Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger,
etc
• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
• FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application
allows a user to access file in a remote host, retrieve files in
remote host and manage or control files from a remote
computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.
• Directory Services : This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.
Ee
• HTTP: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
is the foundation of the World Wide Web, and
is used to load webpages using hypertext
links. HTTP is an application layer protocol
designed to transfer information between
networked devices and runs on top of other
layers of the network protocol stack.
 SMTP
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an
application used by mail servers to send,
receive, and relay outgoing email between
senders and receivers. As the technology
behind email communication, SMTP is the
protocol that allows you to send and receive
emails.
 POP/IMAP
Post Office Protocol is a widely used e-mail
application protocol that can be used to retrieve
e-mail from an e-mail server for the client
application such as Microsoft Outlook.
IMAP: In computing, the Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP) is an Internet standard protocol
used by email clients to retrieve email messages
from a mail server over a TCP/IP connection.
• FTP: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a network
protocol for transmitting files between
computers over Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
connections.
• DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) turns
domain names into IP addresses, which
browsers use to load internet pages.
• DHCP: The full form of DHCP is Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol. The Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol is a network
management protocol. It is used on Internet
Protocol networks and automatically assigns
an IP address to the devices connected to the
network using a client-server architecture.
• Traceroute: A traceroute works by sending Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) packets, and every
router involved in transferring the data gets these
packets. The ICMP packets provide information about
whether the routers used in the transmission are able
to effectively transfer the data.
• Ping: ping (Packet Internet or Inter-Network Groper) is
a basic Internet program that allows a user to test and
verify if a particular destination IP address exists and
can accept requests in computer network
administration.