Chapter Three

The Network Layer

 Outline
 Internetworking,

 Network layer protocols

 IPV4 Addressing [Class full]

 IPV4 Addressing [ Classless- VLSM addressing]

 Introducing IPV6 Addressing

 Unicast and multicast routing

 Network Layer (3rd OSI Layer)
 Concerned with routing packets from source to destination.
 The network layer must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths
through it.
 When source and destination are in different networks, the network layer must deal
with these differences.
 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks.
 Whereas. the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems
on the same network.
 If two systems are connected to the same local network, there is usually no need for
a network layer.
 However, if the two systems are attached to different networks with connecting
devices between the networks, there is often a need for the network layer to
Cntd…
Position of network layer
 Network Layer Protocols
 IPv4 wasn’t designed with this feature in mind, although mobility extensions exist.
 IPv6 has a better designed solution.
 Network layer protocols include:
 IPv4/IPv6, DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol),
 ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol),
 IGMP(Internet Group Multicast Protocol),
 PIM-SM( Protocol Independent Multicast Sparse Mode),
 PIM-DM(Protocol Independent Multicast Dense Mode),
 IPsec(Internet Protocol Security),
 IPX(Internetwork Packet Exchange),
 RIP(Routing Information Protocol),
 Interior Gateway routing protocol(IGRP),
 Enhanced IGRP(EIGRP),
 Open Shortest Path First(OSPF),
 DDP(Datagram Delivery Protocol),
 BGP(Border Gateway Protocol), etc
 Routing Basics
 The network layer of the OSI model provides routing functions and establishes the route
between the source and destination through intermediary nodes(routers).
 Routing is is the process of moving information from a source to a destination across the
internetwork
 The ability of routers to learn possible routes is one of the primary reasons that ARPANET.
 A router is connected to at least two networks and forwards data packets from a network
to another.
 When it receives an incoming packet, it decides the next router (hop) to which the packet
should be forwarded towards its destination.
 A routing protocol : mechanisms for exchanging routing information between routers to
make routing decisions
 can facilitate effective and efficient communication between computer networks.
 allows routers to share information about networks and their proximity to each other.
 A routing table maintains the best routes to various network destinations.
 Routing Basics
 Several algorithms have been developed to help address these difficulties.
Types
Routing

Static Routing Dynamic routing Default rouitng

based on
purpose

Operation:
 Which Router/ Routing to Use?
 static routing, network administrators must manually create and modify
the routing table entries.
 Which Router/ Routing to Use?
 Dynamic routing uses a specialized routing protocol to update the table
entries automatically.
 Default Routing
 The packets are forwarded without the specific address of the next hop.
 The default route is basically the address of another router.
 If the address on the packet matches the route, the packet is forwarded; else,
it is forwarded through a default route of that router.
 The packet can be forwarded through any router which has been configured
for default routing.
 Use ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 {exit-intf | next-hop-ip}
 Advantages of Default Routing
 it can be used when there is no predefined route in the routing table.
 Disadvantages of Default Routing
 The more complex the network is, the more difficult to set up and use
efficiently.
 Overview of Internet Routing
 Internet routing is the process of transmitting and routing IP packets over the
Internet between two or more nodes.
 Internet comprises a large number of interconnected heterogeneous routing
domains called autonomous system (AS).
 AS is a collection of IP networks and routers under the same administration
that share a common routing strategy.
 An Internet service provider (ISP) is the typical example of an AS.
 Each AS must has a 16-bit AS number, which is unique and assigned by a
regional Internet registry such as the American Registry of Internet Numbers
(http://www.arin.net).
 Some routing protocols require the AS to make routing decisions.
 Interior Vs Exterior Routing Protocols
 The routing protocols used within an AS are called interior gateway protocols
 IGPs provide information on reachable interior destinations to the outside work
 IGPs choose the best path through the network based on some metrics distance,
bandwidth, delay , reliability, load, and MTU
 The distance between the two nodes is calculated as a sum of all the metric
values of links along the path
 EGPs: is used to find network path information between different networks
 are designed to exchange routing information between different autonomous
systems.
 EGP serves as a translator for ensuring that external routing information
gets successfully interpreted inside each AS network.
 EGPs provide information on reachable exterior destinations to the interior
routers.
 Difference between IGP & EGP
 IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) :-
 Within a single autonomous system
 Single network administration
 Unique routing policy
 Make best use of network resource
 IGP’s fall into two categories:
A. Distance Vector Protocols
Routing Information Protocol (RIP V1, RIP V2 and RIPng)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
B. Link State Protocols
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)
 Difference between IGP & EGP…
EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol ) :-
 Among different autonomous systems
 Independent administrative entities.
 Communication between independent network infrastructures
 EGP is commonly used between hosts on the Internet to exchange routing
table information.
 Examples of an EGP:

– Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

– Exterior Gateway Protocol (Replaced by BGP)
 Cntd…

Fig. The Internet comprises a large number of autonomous systems

 Classifications of Dymanic Routing Protocols
 Different routing protocols use different algorithms and approaches to gather and
disseminate routing information about their area in both IPv4 and IPv6.
 Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP)
1. Distance Vector Routing Protocols is a routing algorithm used to calculate the
best paths and then send that information to the neighbors.
 Distance vector means that routes are advertised as vectors of distance and
direction.
 Distance is defined in terms of a metric, such as hop count, and direction is
simply the next-hop router or exit interface.
 Use the Bellman-Ford algorithm for the best-path route determination
2. a link-state routing protocol can create a “complete view,” or topology, of the
network.
 It uses link-state information to create a topology map and to select the best path
to all destination networks in the topology
 Distance Vector Vs. Link State Routing Protocols
Link State
Distance Vector
• Updates frequently • Updates are event triggered

• Each router is "aware" of only its • Each router is "aware" of all other routers

immediate neighbors in the "area"

• Slow convergence • Fast convergence

• Prone to routing loops • Less subject to routing loops
• Easy to configure
• More difficult to configure
• Fewer router resources required
• More router resource intensive
• Updates require more bandwidth
• Updates require less bandwidth
• Doesn’t "understand" the topology
• Has detailed knowledge of distant
of the network
networks and routers
 Internet Routing Protocol
 A routing protocol is a protocol that specifies how routers communicate with each
other.

 It disseminating information that enables them to select routes between any

two nodes on a computer network

 The choice of the route being done by routing algorithms.

 Each router has a priori knowledge only of networks attached to it directly.

 A routing protocol shares this information first among immediate neighbors,

and then throughout the network.

 This way, routers gain knowledge of the topology of the network.

 The term routing protocol may refer specifically to one operating at layer
three of the OSI model, which similarly disseminates topology information
 Routing with RIP

 The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a simple and true distance

vector routing protocol, and each router advertises the next hop and hop

count for each destination it can reach to its directly connected neighbors.

 It sends the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30

seconds.

 RIP prevents routing loops by implementing a limit on the number of

hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination.

 The maximum (distance) number of hops allowed for RIP is 15.

 Uses Bellman-ford algorithm

Works well in small networks, but it’s inefficient on large networks.

 Routing with RIP

 RIP comes with three versions:

1. RIP version 1 works only classful routing, which means that all devices

in the network must use the same subnet mask

2. RIP version 2: support classless addressing(classless routing) and

variable-length subnet masks b/c it sends the subnet mask information

with the routing table.

 use administarative distance 120

3. RIP next generation: is the newest version of RIP, designed to support

IPv6.
 InterGatewayRouting Protocol(IGRP)
 IGRP is a classful routing protocol that was built by Cisco

 The maximum configurable hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 100

 Uses the concepts of an autonomous system (AS)

 improvement of RIP is that the full routing table is advertised every 90

seconds

 EIGRP improves upon IGRP that was built by Cisco

 EIGRP is a classless routing protocol that supports VLSM and both IPv4

and IPv6.

 EIGRP has a maximum hop count of 255 hops.

 administrative distance 90
 Link state Routing Protocol
Routing with Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 The OSPF protocol is a link-state routing protocol.

 OSPF is an open standards routing protocol

 This works by using the Dijkstra algorithm (SPF)

 OSPF provides the following features:

 Minimizes routing update traffic
 Allows scalability and Has unlimited hop count
 It allows multi-level routing hierarchy called area routing.
 Supports VLSM/CIDR(Classless Inter-Domain Routing )
 Allows multi-vendor deployment (open standard)
 Routing updates are flooded when there is a network topology change.
 Uses more complex route selection metrics.
 Link state Routing Protocol
Pros
 OSPF is a more sophisticated routing protocol

 Converges rapidly and accurately

 Can use a metric calculation that effectively selects the "best" route(s)
based on bandwidth,

 although an OSPF cost can be administratively assigned 110

Cons

 Use of OSPF requires

 More powerful routing hardware

 More detailed knowledge by the administrator, especially when large multi-

area networks are used
 Link state Routing Protocol
 Intermediate System-Intermediate System (IS-IS) routing protocol
 is a link-state routing protocol commonly used in large-scale enterprise
networks and internet service provider (ISP) environments.
 It is an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) that operates within a single
autonomous system (AS) and is designed to efficiently distribute routing
information and calculate shortest path routes.

Metrics of routing protocols

 IGRP and EGRP :Bandwidth, delay, load, and reliability
 RIP - Hop Count
 OSPF - Cost
 Exterior Gateway protocol(EGP)…
C. Path Vector Routing Protocol
 The main characteristic of path vector protocols is a path of autonomous system
numbers between the source and destination (AS path) is maintained to detect
loops.
 Are a class of distance vector protocols -> they also have no knowledge about
instant routers and how they interconnect in the network.
 It uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm when there is more than one path available
to a destination.
 The operation is similar to that of distance vector protocols.
 Each router advertises its local BGP routing table to its neighbors.
 As routers relay the advertisements, they add new routes to its own local
routing table based on the contents of the advertisement.
 Besides, they add their own AS number to the AS path before sending out the
advertisement. E.g BGP
 Classful Vs Classless Routing Protocols(Behavior)

A. Classful routing protocols don’t include the subnet mask with the route

advertisement.

 Within the same network, consistency of the subnet masks is assumed.

 Summary routes are exchanged between foreign networks.

 E.g., of classful routing protocols: RIP V1, IGRP

B. Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask with the route

advertisement.

 It supports variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) and subnetting.

 E.g., of classless routing protocols: RIP V2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS

 Internet Protocol (IP)
IP is a protocol used for communicating data across a packet-switched
internetwork using theTCP/IP. suite,

IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the IP Suite and has the
task of delivering datagrams (packets) from the source host to the destination
host based on their addresses.

 For this purpose IP defines addressing methods and structures for datagram
encapsulation.

 There are two types of addressing

1. IP Version 4 (IPv4) is still the dominant protocol of the Internet, although

the successor,

2. IP Version 6 (IPv6), is being deployed actively worldwide (128 bits).

 Logical Addressing - IPv4 Addresses
 An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
 IPv4 addresses are unique and universal

 Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address at the
same time.
 The IPv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing
system must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to
the Internet..
 Address Space
 A protocol such as IPv4 that defines addresses has an address space.

 an address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol.

 If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the address space is because

each bit can have two different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have values.

 IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than 4
billion) the address space

 This means that, theoretically, if there were no restrictions, more than 4

billion devices could be connected to the Internet.

 Actual number is much less because of the restrictions imposed on the

addresses.
 Notation
 There are two prevalent notations to show an 1Pv4 address: binary notation and
dotted-decimal notation.
 Binary Notation: In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. So it
is common to hear an IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a 4-byte
address. The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:
01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010
 Dotted-Decimal Notation : To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to
read, Internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with a decimal point
(dot) separating the bytes.
The following is the dotted-decimal notation of the above address: 117.149.29.2
Dotted-decimal
notation and binary
notation for an IPv4
address
 Classful Addressing
 IPv4 addressing, used the concept of classes.
 This architecture is called classful addressing.
 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B,
C, D, and E. Each class occupies some part of the address space.
 Example

 Find class of the following IP addresses?

1. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

2. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

3. 14.23.120.8

4. 252.5.15.111

• Solution
1. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
2. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address.
3. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
4. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
 Classes and Blocks
 One problem with classful addressing is that each class is divided
into a fixed number of blocks with each block having a fixed size

Number of Blocks for class A = 27 Block size for class A = 224

Number of Blocks for class B = 214 Block size for class B = 216
Number of Blocks for class C = 221 Block size for class C = 28
 Cntd…
 When an organization requested a block of addresses, it was granted one in class A, B, or C.
 Class A addresses were designed for only large organizations such as the military,
government agencies, universities, and large corporations with a large number of
attached hosts or routers.
 A block in class A address is too large for almost any organization.
This means most of the addresses in class A were wasted and were not used.
 Class B addresses were designed for midsize organizations with tens of thousands
of attached hosts or routers.
 A block in class B is also very large, probably too large for many of the organizations that
received a class B block.

 Class C addresses were designed for small organizations with a small number of
attached hosts or routers.
 A block in class C is probably too small for many organizations.
 Network ID and Host ID
 In classful addressing, an IP address in class A, B, or C is divided into network
ID and host ID.
 These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the address.
 In class A, 1 byte defines the network ID & 3 bytes define the host ID.
 In class B, 2 bytes define the network ID & 2 bytes define the host ID.
 In class C, 3 bytes define the network ID & 1 byte defines the host ID.

1st octet 2nd octet 3rd octet 4th octet

Class A Network Host Host Host

Class B Network Network Host Host

Class C Network Network Network Host

 Default Mask
 The length of the network ID and host ID (in bits) is predetermined in classful
addressing,
 We can also use a mask (also called the default mask), a 32-bit number made of
contiguous 1s followed by contiguous 0s.
 The mask can help us to find the network ID and the host ID.
 For example, the mask for a class A address has eight 1s, which means the first 8
bits of any address in class A define the network ID; the next 24 bits define the host
ID.
 IP address shortage
 In the early days of the Internet, IP addresses were allocated to

organizations based on request rather than actual need.

 The flaws in classful addressing scheme combined with the fast growth of the
Internet led to the near depletion of the available addresses.
 Yet the number of devices on the Internet is much less than the 232 address space.
 We have run out of class A and B addresses, and a class C block is too small for
most midsize organizations.
 One solution that has alleviated the problem is the idea of classless addressing.
 Number medium size - Hosts:
 Class A: 16 million
 Class B: 65,536
 Class C: 256
 Subnetting
 During the era of classful addressing, subnetting was introduced.
 The solution to the IP address shortage was thought to be the subnet mask.
 Formalized in 1985, the subnet mask breaks a single class A, B or C
network in to smaller pieces.
 If an organization was granted a large block in class A or B, it could divide
the addresses into several contiguous groups and assign each group to
smaller networks (called subnets) or, in rare cases, share part of the
addresses with neighbors.
 Subnetting increases the number of 1s in the mask.
 Subnetting is the process of borrowing bits from the HOST bits, in order to
divide the larger network into small subnets.
 Subnetting does NOT give you more hosts, but actually costs you hosts.
 Cntd…

Network Network Host Host

172 16 0 0

Network Network Subnet Host

 You lose two host IP Addresses for each subnet, and perhaps one for the
subnet IP address and one for the subnet broadcast IP address.
 You lose the last subnet and all of it’s hosts’ IP addresses as the broadcast
for that subnet is the same as the broadcast for the network.
 In older networks, you would have lost the first subnet, as the subnet IP
address is the same as the network IP address. (This subnet can be used in
most networks.)
 Classless Addressing
 To overcome address depletion and give more organizations access to the Internet,
classless addressing was designed and implemented.
 In this scheme, there are no classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks.

 Address Blocks
 In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be connected to
the Internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses.
 The size of the block (the number of addresses) varies based on the nature and
size of the entity.
 For example, a household may be given only two addresses; a large
organization may be given thousands of addresses.
 An ISP, as the Internet service provider, may be given thousands or hundreds
of thousands based on the number of customers it may serve.
 Restriction
 To simplify the handling of addresses, the Internet authorities impose three
restrictions on classless address blocks:
1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another.
2. The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8 .... ).
3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses.
 cntd…

 The above figure shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-

decimal notation, granted to a small business that needs 16 addresses.

 We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.

 The addresses are contiguous.

 The number of addresses is a power of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is

divisible by 16.

 The first address, when converted to a decimal number, is 3,440,387,360,

which when divided by 16 results in 215,024,210.

 Classless addressing Mask
 A better way to define a block of addresses is to select any address in the
block and the mask.
 As we discussed before, a mask is a 32-bit number in which the n leftmost
bits are 1s and the 32 - n rightmost bits are 0s.

 However, in classless addressing the mask for a block can take any
value from 0 to 32.
 It is very convenient to give just the value of n preceded by a slash (CIDR
– Classless Inter Domain Routing notation).

 The address and the /n notation completely define the whole block (the
first address, the last address, and the number of addresses).
 Method I
First address
 The first address in the block can be found by setting the 32 - n rightmost
bits in the binary notation of the address to 0s.
 E.g. 1, A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We know
that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in
the block?
Solution: The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
• If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100000

or
205.16.37.32.
 Last address
 The last address in the block can be found by setting the 32 - n rightmost
bits in the binary notation of the address to 1s.
 Find the last address for the block in above E.g., 1.
 Solution

• The binary representation of the given address is

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111

• If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get

11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111

or
205.16.37.47
 Number of Addresses

 The number of addresses in the block is the difference between the last

and first address.

 It can easily be found using the formula 232-n.

Example

Find the number of addresses in E.g., 1.

Solution

• The value of n is 28, which means that number of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16

 Method II

 To find the first address, the last address, and the number of addresses is
to represent the mask as a 32-bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number.
 This is particularly useful when we are writing a program to find these
pieces of information.
 In the above example the /28 can be represented as:

11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 (twenty-eight 1s and four

0s).
Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
Cntd…
 Cntd…
 The number of addresses can be found by complementing the mask,
interpreting it as a decimal number, and adding 1 to it.
 Address Allocation
 The next issue in classless addressing is address allocation. How are the
blocks allocated?
 The ultimate responsibility of address allocation is given to a global authority
called the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Addresses (ICANN).
 However, ICANN does not normally allocate addresses to individual
organizations.
 It assigns a large block of addresses to an ISP.
 Each ISP, in turn, divides its assigned block into smaller sub blocks and grants
the sub blocks to its customers.
 In other words, an ISP receives one large block to be distributed to its Internet
users. This is called address aggregation: many blocks of addresses are
aggregated in one block and granted to one ISP.
 Example

• An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with 190.100.0.0/16

(65,536 addresses).

• The ISP needs to distribute these addresses to three groups of customers

as follows:

a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256 addresses.

b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128 addresses.

c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64 addresses.

• Q: Design the sub blocks and find out how many addresses are still
available after these allocations?
Solution
Solution
 Network Address Translation (NAT)
 Many users start to have more hosts to be connected to the internet
 IP addresses are in depletion
Solution: NAT
 NAT enables a user to have a large set of addresses internally and one
address, or a small set of addresses, externally.
 The traffic inside can use the large set; the traffic outside, the small set.

Reading Assignment
1. Read how NAT works, Investigate the global IP address scheme of AMU
and how they use it in NAT
 IPv6 Addresses
 Internet Protocol (IP) version 4 is the most commonly used communication
protocol for both the Internet and internal network environments.
 Although IPv4 is robust and scalable, new technologies and higher demand
have paved the way for the eventual adoption of IPv6.
 Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is still a long-term problem for
the Internet.
 This and other problems in the IP protocol itself have been the motivation for
IPv6.
 An IPv6 address is 128 bits or 32 hexadecimal digits long.
Differences Between IPv4 and IPv6
 Advantages of IPv6 Addressing Scheme
1. Large address space:- IPv6 uses a 128-bit address space, which allows for
3.4x1038 or 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 possible
addresses.
2. Hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructure:- The IPv6 address space is
designed to be more efficient for routers, which means that even though there are
many more addresses, routers can process data much more efficiently because of
address optimization.
3. Stateless and Stateful address configuration:- Stateless address configuration
refers to host IP configuration without a DHCP server.

Stateful address configuration refers to host IP configuration that uses a

DHCP server.
 IPv6 supports both stateless and stateful address configuration.
 Cntd…
 With stateless address configuration, hosts automatically configure themselves
with IPv6 link-local addresses along with additional addresses advertised by
local routers.
4. Built-in security:- IPv6 has built-in IP security, which facilitates configuration of
secure network connections.
5. Prioritized delivery:- IPv6 contains a field in the packet that allows network
devices to determine the specified rate at which the packet should be processed.
 This allows traffic prioritization or QoS. E.g. when streaming video traffic,

6. Neighbor detection:- IPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery protocol to

manage the interaction between nodes within the same network link.
 Neighbor Discovery replaces the broadcast-based Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) with more efficient multicast and unicast communication within the
same network segment.
 contd...
7. Extensibility:- IPv6 has been designed to be extended with fewer
constraint than IPv4.
Pv6 Address Space
Abbreviated IPv6 addresses
 Example
 Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.
 Solution
 We first need to align the left side of the double colon to the left of the original
pattern and the right side of the double colon to the right of the original pattern to
find how many 0s we need to replace the double colon.

This means the original address is:

Types of IPv6 Addresses
 Cntd…
 There are three main types of IPv6 addresses:
 Unicast:- Identifies a single interface within the address scope.

Packets that are addressed to this address are delivered to a single

interface.
 Multicast:- Identifies multiple interfaces and delivers packets to all
interfaces that are identified by the address.
It is used for one-to-many communication over a network infrastructure.
 Anycast:- Identifies multiple interfaces, but delivers packets to the nearest
interface.

 It is used for one-to-many communication, with delivery to a single

interface.
End of Chapter Three
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