Chapter Two

Analog Instrument
 Analog Instrument
In which the output or display is continuous
function of time and has constant relation with
input.

The physicals quantity like voltage, current, power

and energy are measured through the analogue
instruments.

Most of the analogue instrument use pointer or dial

for indicating the magnitude of the measured quantity.
Classification of Analog Instruments
• Based on the quantity they measure
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Ohmmeter

• Based on kind of measurements

 AC Or DC
 Both AC and DC

• Based on the Function of Instruments

 indicating
 integrating
 recording
 Cont’d
Indicating instruments
indicate the value of the electrical quantity to be
measured generally by the deflection of the dial or
pointer on the calibrated scale. E.g.: voltmeter,
ammeter, wattmeter
The indicating instruments are of two types. They
are
1. Electromechanical Instruments
2. Electronic Instruments
Recording instruments
It gives a continuous record of the quantity being
measured over a specified time interval
Integrating instruments
Totalizes the events over a specific time
They give as the product of time and an
electrical quantity
Essential system of
Indicating Instruments
I. Deflection system
II. Controlling system
III. Damping system
I Deflection system
It is that part of the instrument mechanism which utilize some physical effect of
electric current or voltage to the system along with the pointer attached to it to
move from it’s zero position.
Effect used in deflection system
 Magnetic effects
 Thermal effect
 Electro static effect
 Induction effect
 Hall effect
II. Controlling system
It is that part of the instrument which brings into play a force called
controlling force. This force opposes the deflection force and
increases with the increase in the deflection of the moving system, to
limit its movement.
III. Damping system
It is that part of the instrument which provides damping force to
damp the oscillations of the pointer before come to a rest.
Types of Analog Instruments, Ammeter and
Voltmeter
PMMC
Moving Iron
Electro dynamometer
Hotwire
Thermocouple
Induction
Permanent magnet moving coil type(PMMC)
• Most accurate type for dc measurement
• Principle is same as that of d Arsonval
type of galvanometer
• Moving coil is wound with many turns
of silk covered copper wire
• The coil is mounted on a rectangular
aluminum former which is pivoted on
jeweled bearings.
• Coil moves freely in the field of
permanent magnet
Working principle of PMMC:
• When a current flow through the coil, it generates a magnetic field
which is proportional to the current in case of an ammeter. The
deflecting torque is produced by the electromagnetic action of the
current in the coil and the magnetic field..
Deflecting Torque
• This torque is produced by the effect electromagnetic force induced by
the flow of current through the coil. It is also said to be Electromagnetic
Torque. Thus the pointer moves as per the movement of coil inside the
magnetic field.
Damping torque
• This torque ensures the pointer comes to an equilibrium position i.e. at
rest in the scale without oscillating to give an accurate reading. In PMMC
as the coil moves in the magnetic field, eddy current sets up in a metal
former or core on which the coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil
itself which opposes the motion of the coil resulting in the slow swing of
a pointer and then come to rest quickly with very little oscillation.
Controlling Torque
• This torque is produced by the spring action and opposes the deflection
torque so as the pointer can come to rest at the point where these two
torques are equal (Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque). The
value of control torque depends on the mechanical design of spiral
springs and strip suspensions.
Torque Equation for PMMC
Types of control system:
1. Spring control
It utilizes two spiral hairsprings of
non magnetic alloy such as
phosphorous bronze or beryllium-
copper.
2. Gravity control
In this a small adjustable weight is
attached to the moving
system(pointer) in such a way that
in deflection condition it produces
a restoring or controlling torque
Damping system
• Deflecting torque provides deflecting,,
• Controlling torque acts in opposite direction to that of deflecting
torque
• So before coming to rest, the pointer oscillates in equilibrium
position because of moment of inertia…
• Unless pointer rests in its steady state position final reading cannot be
obtained.
• So to make the pointer to rest in a short time
Advantages of PMMC Disadvantage of PMMC
It has uniform scale  Suitable for direct current measurement
The sensitivity is high. only
It consumes low power  Ageing of permanent magnet and the
It has high accuracy. control springs introduces the errors.
 cost is high due to delicate construction
Instrument is free from
hysteresis error. and accurate machining
Extension of instrument range  Friction due to jewel-pivot suspension.
is possible.
Not affected by external
magnetic fields
Errors In PMMC Instrument
• Friction
• Temperature
• Aging of various parts
Time Response of instrument
Moving Iron Instrument
• Used to measure alternating current and voltage.
• The movable system consists of one or more pieces of
specially-shaped soft iron pivoted so as to acted up on
by magnetic field induced by the current in the coil.
It is generally of two types:
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type

Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation 19

 Attraction type
• The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like
opening.
• The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector
eccentrically mounted.
• When the current flows through the coil,
a magnetic field is produced and the
moving iron moves from the weaker field
outside the coil to the stronger field
• The controlling torque is provide by
springs hut gravity control
• Damping is provided by air friction with
the help of a light aluminium piston

Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation 20

 Repulsion Type
• there are two vanes inside the coil one fixed and other movable
• When the magnetizing current flows through the coil and there is a
force of repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the movement of
the moving vane.
Two different designs are in common use :
• Radial Vane Type
• Co-axial Vane Type

Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation 21

 (I) Radial Vane Type
• The strips are placed within the coil.
• The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle
of the instrument

Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation 22

The fixed and moving vanes are
sections of co axial cylinders
The controlling torque is provided by
springs.
The damping torque is produced by air
friction as in attraction type
instruments.
The operating magnetic field is very
weak and therefore eddy current
damping is not used in them as
introduction of a permanent magnet
Assume small increment in current in the coil causes deflection angle dø.
So, mechanical work =Td dø
When the vane moves due to attraction, reluctance varies, thereby
changing the inductance , implies energy stored in the magnetic field also
changes.
Let
I = initial current
L = instrument inductance
Ø= deflection
dI = increase in current
d Ø = change in deflection
dL = change in inductance
•.
DC Ammeter Basic
• Nothing but a d’Arsonval galvanometer
• The coil winding is very light and small
and can carry small currents
• For large current measurement,
majority of current is bypassed through
a shunt resistor
To calculate Shunt Resistance
• Nothing but a d’Arsonaval
galvanometer
• Resistance should be connected in
series
• Series resistance is called multiplier
• The function of the multiplier is to
limit the current in the meter, so that
the current in the meter does not
exceed the full scale deflection FSD
Multiple Resistance
 Multi Range Voltmeter

 When the switch is in position 4, V4, then R4 will act as multiplier resistance

 When the selector switch is in position 1, V1, then R1,R2,R3,R4 will be the multiplier
resistances
 V1 is the maximum range
 V4 is the minimum range of measurement
Cont’d
Cont’d
 Sensitivity of voltmeter
• Nothing but the reciprocal of full scale deflection current
• The sensitivity of voltmeter specified on the meter dial specifies the
resistance of the meter for one volt range. The sensitivity of voltmeter is
also defined as

• S = 1/Ifs

• = 1/Im Ω/V

• Where Ifs = Current required for full scale deflection

• It is a transfer instrument
• Calibrated with dc source and also e used for ac measurements too
• No change in accuracy for both ac and dc measurements
• For measuring ac and dc this instrument can be used..
Fixed Coils:
Magnetic field required for operation is obtained by using fixed coils
2 fixed coils are present, a uniform magnetic field is created at the
center because of the division of coils
Coils are air cored
Fine wire for … voltmeter
Thick wire … for ammeter & wattmeter
Cont’d
Moving coils
• Air cored self sustainable coils
• Or coil of wire wound on a non metallic former
• Coil is light and rigid
• Controlling : spring control most often
• Spring also acts as leads to the coil
• Damping : air friction damping
• Shielding : high permeability alloy is used for shielding of stray magnetic
fields
• Cases: polished wooden and metal cases
• Adjustable level screws are incorporated
• Spirit level for ensuring proper levelling
• As Ammeter: fixed coils, movable coil
are connected in series carrying the
same current, a shunt resistance is
connected to limit the current.

• As Voltmeter: Fixed coils, movable

coil are connected in series with a
high no inductive resistance ,, most
accurate type of voltmeter.

• As wattmeter: to measure power. the

fixed coil acts as a current coil and
connected in series with the load
 cont’d
• Movable coil as a voltage coil or pressure coil connected
across the supply
• Wattmeter: indicates the supply power
• Field produced the fixed coil is proportional to load current
• Field produced by the moving coil is proportional to the
supply voltage
• Deflecting torque is proportional to interaction of two fields
and proportional to the power supplied to the load
Cont’d
• Free from hysteresis and eddy • Low torque to weight ratio i.e
loss low sensitivity
• Low torque to weight ratio
• High grade accuracy
gives increased frictional
• Can be used for both ac and losses
dc measurements
• More expensive than PMMC
• Low power consumption and MI instruments.
• Light in weight • Sensitive to overloads and
mechanical impacts.
• High operating current
• Have non-uniform scale
Cont’d
• This type uses PMMC movement with some kind of rectifiers
• PMMC is connected across the secondary winding of a current
transformer
• Rectifier converts AC to DC and then passes it to the meter for
measurements
Cont’d
Single Phase Energy Meter
• Induction type instrument are commonly used as Energy watt meters
• It is an example of integrating instruments which measures the
quantity of electricity
• This type of instrument is commonly used in domestic and industrial
application
• Measures energy in kilo watt hours [kWh]
• It works in the principle of induction ie production of eddy currents
Cont’d
• Four main parts of operating system
• Driving system
• Moving system
• Braking system
• Registering system
• Consists of two electro magnets
• Coil of one electro magnet called Current coil excited by the load
current
[series magnet]
• The coil of another electro magnet called pressure coil excited by the
supply voltage, the current is proportional to the supply voltage
[shunt magnets]
• Flux produced should be 90 degree lag with supply voltage
• Light aluminum disc connected with light alloy shaft
• Disc is placed in between series and shunt magnets
• Supported with jewel bearing
• System runs on a steel hardened pivot
• Pinion in the shaft engages in counting mechanism
• No springs so no controlling torque
• Damping mechanism is provided by a small permanent magnet
• This is placed diametrically opposite to ac magnets
• The disc passes between the magnet gaps
• Eddy current is created in the disc that reacts with the magnetic field
and exerts braking torque
• Speed of the disc can be controlled by varying the position of the
braking magnet
• Counting mechanism is achieved by using train of gears driven pinion
gear arrangement connected with the rotating shaft
• Which turns the pointer in the dials at the front end indicating the
number of rotations
• This meter integrates the instantaneous power values so that the
total energy consumed over a period of time is known or measured
Cont’d • Pressure coil is carried by shunt magnet M2 connected
to supply voltage
• Series magnet M1 carries current coil which carries
• load current
• Both these coils produces alternating fluxes ø1 and ø2
which is proportional to their currents
• Part of these fluxes induces emf onto the disc
• Due to this eddy currents are induced in the disc
• Because of the interaction of magnetic fluxes of
magnets M1 , M2, and eddy currents
• The disc rotates
• Speed of the disc is controlled by the permanent
magnet .
• Since the disc rotates in the air gap of permanent
magnet, eddy current is produced in the disc
• So braking torque is generated
• Speed of the disc can be adjusted by positioning the C
shaped magnet
Thank You
-End-
Exercises
1) A PMMC instrument has a coil of dimension 10mm*8mm. The flux
density in the air gap is 0.15wb/m2. If the coil is wound for 100 turn
there by carrying a current of 5mA, calculate
• Deflecting torque
• Deflection if the spring constant is 0.2* 10-6 Nm/degree.
2) A PMMC voltmeter with a resistance of 20ῼ gives a full scale
deflection of 120 degree when a potential difference of 100mV
is applied across it. The moving coil has dimensions of
30mmx25mm and is wound with 100 turns. The spring constant
is 0.315x10-6 N-m/degree. Find
• The flux density in the air-gap
3) The coil of moving-coil voltmeter is 40mm long and 30mm wide
and has 100turns on it. The control spring exerts 240x10-6 N-m
when the deflection is 100 divisions on full scale. If the flux
density of the magnetic field in the air gap is 1wb/m2,
• Estimate the resistance that must be put in series with the coil
to give 1V per division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil may
be neglected.
4) A moving-coil voltmeter has a resistance of 200ῼ and the full scale deflection
is reached when a potential difference of 100mV is applied across the terminals.
The moving coil has effective dimensions of 30 mm×25 mm and is wound with
100 turns. The flux density in the gap is 0.2 Wb/m2. Determine
• The control constant of the spring if the final deflection is 100°
• A suitable diameter of copper wire for the coil winding if 20%
of the total instrument resistance is due to the coil winding. Resistivity of
copper is 1.7 × 10-8 Ωm.
5) A PMMC instrument has circular coil with a radius of 8mm and
wound for 100turns. The flux density in the airgap is 0.2T. When the
measured current is 1mA, the angular deflection is 36 degree. The
meter is assumed to have zero impedance and has a maximum range
of 10mA.
a) Determine the deflecting torque and the spring constant of the
spring controlled pointer
b) At full current, the effective angular deflection is 115 degree.
Calculate the measurement error.
6) The inductance of a certain moving-iron ammeter is 10+4ϴ-1/2ϴ2 where
ϴ is the deflection in radian from the zero position. The control
spring torque is 12 × 10-6 Nm/rad. Calculate the scale position in
radian for current of 5 A
7) The inductance of a moving iron ammeter with deflection and
current of 90 degree and 1A respectively is given by the expression L=
200+40ϴ-4ϴ2 -ϴ3H where ϴ is the deflection in radian from the zero
position. Estimate the angular deflection of the pointer for a current
of 1.5A.
8)The control spring of a moving-iron ammeter exerts a torque of
0.5 × 10-3 Nm/degree when the deflection is 52°. The inductance of
the coil varies with pointer deflection according to
9) the inductance of a 15A Electrodynamic ammeter changes
uniformly at the rate of 0.0045µH/degree. The spring constant is 10-6
Nm/degree Determine
• The angular deflection