Thermodynamics 2 (TRDMIA2)

Lecture 1
2024
Introduction and basic concepts
Thermodynamics

• Broadly defined as the science of energy and

energy transformation, particularly heat and work

• Thermodynamics emerged as a science with the

design of the first steam engine

• The term “thermodynamics” was first published in

1849 by Lord Kelvin Figure 1. One of the first steam
engine designs [1]

• The name has roots in Greek language: thermae

(heat) and dynamis (power)

1. https://www.livescience.com/44186-who-invented-the-steam-engine.html 3
Application area of Thermodynamics

• Power generation (conventional

and unconventional)

• Automotive and marine engines

• Turbojet engines

• Refrigeration and air conditioning

systems

• Bioengineering and biomedical

Figure 2. Applications of Thermodynamics 4

Fundamental units
Table 1. SI primary units

• All physical quantities are characterized by dimensions.

• The magnitude given to a dimension is called units
• There are few systems of units universally recognized
• The most used are SI (metric system) and English system
• SI has a decimal relationship between various units while
the English system has no logic relationship
• In SI system, there are seven fundamental dimensions and
their units

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Prefixes used for units
Table 2. Prefixes used in SI for basic units

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Derived units commonly used in thermodynamics
Table 3. Derived units

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 Some SI and English units
Physical quantity SI units English units Conversion
Mass kg (kilogram) lbm (pound-mass) 1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
Length m (meter) ft (foot) 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Force N (Newton)* lbf (pound-force)** 1 N = 1 kg m/s2
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm ft/s2
Weight (=m*g) N (Newton), lbf (pound-force) g = 9.807 m/s2 (≈ 9.81)
kgf (kilogram-force) g = 32.174 ft/s2
1kgf = 9.81N

*1N = the force required to move a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s 2

**1lbf (pound-force) = the force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm at a rate of 1ft/s 2

Figure 4. Magnitude of force in N,

kgf and lbf [2]

Figure 3. Force units definition [2]

2. Y.A. Cengel, M.A .Boles, Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach, 8th Ed, McGraw Hill 2015 8
Thermodynamic systems
Definition

• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

• The mass or region outside of the system is called the surroundings
• The system is separated from the surrounding by a real or imaginary surface called
the boundary
• The boundary of a system may be fixed or movable.

Figure 5. Thermodynamic system

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Thermodynamic systems
Types of thermodynamic systems

1. Closed systems
• A fixed mass is chosen for study;
• The volume of the system does not have to be fixed
(i.e. movable boundary); Figure 6. Diagram of a cylinder fitted with a piston

• The mass does not cross the boundary of the

system however, the energy (in the form of heat
and/or work) crosses the boundary of the system;
• It is also known as a control mass system.
• Example: cylinder fitted with a piston

Figure 7. Diagram of a closed system

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Thermodynamic systems
Types of thermodynamic systems

2. Open systems
• A fixed volume in space is chosen for study (also
called “control volume”)
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of
an open system
• Examples: flow through a turbine, nozzle etc.
• The boundaries of a control volume can be real, or
imaginary (when there are no physical surfaces) Figure 8. Difference between a closed and an open system

• The boundaries of a control volume are called

control surface

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Thermodynamic systems
Types of thermodynamic systems

3. Isolated system
• A system of fixed mass with no energy or mass transfer across the boundaries.
• Example: an universe.

Figure 9. Types of systems

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Properties of a system

• Intensive properties –are properties • Extensive properties – when the value

that do not equal to the sum of their for the entire system is equal to the sum
individual parts (i.e. are independent of of the values of the individual parts of
the amount of substance present) the system, i.e. total volume, total mass,
• Example: temperature, pressure, total energy, etc.
density, viscosity, specific heat capacity • Extensive properties per unit mass are
called specific properties.
• Examples: specific volume, specific
energy, etc.

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 State of a system
• The state of a system in thermodynamic
equilibrium is defined by a set of its measurable
properties that allows the determination of all other
properties.
• When a property changes, the state of the system
changes.

Figure 10. State of a system

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 State of a system
• The number of properties required to describe the
state of a system at any particular moment
depends on the nature of the system.
• Consider piston @1- gas initially in equilibrium with
p1, V1 and T1
• After piston expands @2 – system is finally in
equilibrium state 2 represented by P2, V2 and T2

Figure 10. State of a system

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Processes and cycles

• The change of a system from one equilibrium state

to another is called a process
• The series of states through which the system
passes during a process is called the path of the
process
• A process can be reversible or irreversible.

Figure 11. Process path

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Processes and cycles

• In a reversible process, all intermediate states on the

process path are in in a quasi-static equilibrium (i.e at every
instant, the system deviation from the thermodynamic
equilibrium is infinitesimal) as in Fig 12. The path of an
reversible process is represented by a solid line.

Figure 12. Reversible process

• When the intermediate states on the path of a process are
non-equilibrium states (i.e. the properties are not uniform
and thus the state of the system cannot be defined) such a
process is called irreversible or non-equilibrium process,
as in Fig.13. An irreversible process is represented by a
dashed (interrupted) line.

Figure 13. Irreversible process

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Processes and cycles

• Thermodynamic cycle
• A thermodynamic cycle is when a system, after undergoing
two or more processes, returns to the initial state. Example
of a cycle is shown in Fig.14 where, after 4 processes
(process 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-1), the system returns to the initial
state 1.

Figure 14. Thermodynamic cycle

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Temperature

• It is an intensive thermodynamic property

• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles in an object.
When temperature increases, the motion of these
particles also increases.
• It determines the level of heat intensity of a body, i.e.
hotness or coldness
• It is measured with an instrument called thermometer

Figure 15. Types of thermometers

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Temperature scales and conversion factors

• The thermodynamic temperature scale

in SI is the Kelvin scale with units K
(kelvin) and Celsius scale with units °C
(degrees Celsius)
• The 0 K temperature denotes the
absolute zero
• The thermodynamic temperature scale
in English system is Rankine scale
with units R (Rankine) and Fahrenheit
scale, units °F (degrees Fahrenheit) Figure 16. Temperature scales and conversions

ΔT(K) = Δt (°C) and ΔT(R) = ΔT(°F)

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Temperature scale

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Absolute temperature

• Absolute temperature, or absolute zero or true

zero temperature is taken at 0 K or at 0 R
• Thus, by applying the conversion, absolute
zero is at -273 °C or -460 °F
• At absolute zero temperature, the fundamental
particles of matter have negligible or zero
kinetic energy

Figure 17. Absolute zero temperature

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Temperature and thermal equilibrium

• Consider a cup of hot tea left on the table.

After a while the tea cools off to the room
temperature. Thus, the heat was transferred
from the body with high temperature (tea in the
cup) to the body with lower temperature
(surrounding air) until both bodies reach
thermal equilibrium.

• Thus, thermal equilibrium is the state whereby

two bodies in contact reaches the same
Figure 18. Heat flow and thermal equilibrium
temperature
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Pressure

• Is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

• Units: Pa, bar, psi, atm , mmHg, torr, mmH2O

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Pressure
• Gauge pressure is the pressure measured by a pressure measuring instrument such as a
manometer or a pressure gauge. The atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer, also
called barometric pressure.
• The gauge pressure can be above the atmospheric pressure or below the atmospheric pressure
i.e. vacuum gauge pressure as shown in Fig.19a

Atmospheric pressure

Figure 19a. Diagram of pressures

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Pressure

Figure 19b. Diagram of pressures

• The absolute pressure is then: pabs = patm + pg or,

pabs = patm - pvg

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Pressure calculation example
Example 1.
Determine the absolute pressure (in kPa) in each of the following cases, given the barometer reads
738 mmHg: a) pressure-gauge reading 210 kPa; b) vacuum-gauge reading 590 mmHg.

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Pressure calculation example
Example 2
What will be the vacuum gauge reading (in mm of mercury) corresponding to an absolute pressure of
8 kPa when the barometer reading is 755 mmHg?

Read examples 1.2 and 1.3 in TB (Text Book)

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Pressure measuring instruments

• Barometer – measures the atmospheric

pressure
• Manometer -There are different types of
manometers: U-tube manometer, differential U-
tube manometer, Inverted U-tube manometer,
micro manometer, and inclined manometer.
• Burbon tube pressure gauge consists of a
tube bent into a coil or an arc. As the pressure
in the tube increases, the coil unwinds. A
pointer connected to the end of the tube can be
attached to a lever and a pointer calibrated to
indicate pressure Figure 20. Burbon-tube gauge

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Pressure measuring instruments

Figure 21. Types of pressure gauges

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Standard temperature and pressure

STP - Standard Temperature and Pressure

Standard atmospheric conditions are taken as:
0 °C (273 K) and 101.3 kPa (760 mmHg)

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Energy Stored energy Transit energy

• Definition – the capacity to do • Energy possessed • Energy that

work, i.e. a system possess by a system within crosses the
its boundaries boundary of a
energy when is capable of doing system
• Examples:
work • Examples: heat,
potential, kinetic
work and electrical
and internal energy
• Types – the two types of energy energy • It is not a
a system ca possess are the • It is a thermodynamic
thermodynamic property as it
stored energy and the transit
property depends upon a
(or transfer) energy path

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Energy
Kinetic energy – the energy that a system of mass m possesses as a result of its motion
relative to a reference frame:
[J] or for unit mass [J/kg] , where V= velocity
Potential energy – the energy that a system of mass m possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field
PE = mgz [J] or for unit mass, pe = gz [J/kg],
where z= elevation and g= gravitational acceleration
• Internal energy – the energy that a system posses due to its molecular arrangement and
motion of the molecules (i.e. its molecular structure and molecular activity). It is
represented by U [J] or u [J/kg]

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Energy
• Total energy of a system- the sum of all stored energies
E= U + KE + PE = U + + mgz [J] or
e = u + ke = pe = u + + gz [J/kg]
When the system is stationary and the effect of gravity is neglected (i.e.
KE=0 and PE=0) then, E = U or e=u

• Law of conservation of energy

“ The energy can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be
transformed from one form to any other form in which the energy can exist”

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Heat
• For closed systems(fixed mass), the energy can be
transferred in two distinct forms: heat and work
• Heat – the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its
Figure 22. Heat transfer due to
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference temperature difference

• A process during which there is no heat transfer (i.e

the system is insulated or both the system and its
surroundings are at the same temperature) is called
adiabatic process

Figure 23. Adiabatic system

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 Heat

• The heat can be identified only when it

crosses the boundary of a system
• It exists only during the transfer of energy
into or out of the system
• Sign convention:
Figure 24. Heat, as it crosses the
- heat flow into the system – positive boundary of the system

- heat flow out of the system - negative

Figure 25. Heat flow sign convention

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Heat flow

Figure 26. Heat flows from hot to cold

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 Heat
• Path functions- inexact differentials denoted by δ
(δQ ,δW )- their magnitudes depend on the path
taken
• Point functions – depend on the state only and not
how the system reaches that state) – exact
differentials denoted by d
• Properties have exact differentials i.e. a small change
in volume is dV and the total change in volume is,

Figure 27. Properties are point functions

but heat and work are path functions

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 Heat

• Heat is a path function thus is denoted by δQ

Figure 27. Properties are point functions

but heat and work are path functions

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Specific heat
• Definition – the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit
mass of substance by one degree. Is denoted by c [kJ/kg K]
• For the entire mass,

Thus,

• Solids and liquids have only one specific heat

• Gases have two specific heats:
- specific heat at constant pressure, cp
- specific heat at constant volume, cv

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Specific heat
• Each substance requires a different amount of energy for one degree change in
temperature, therefore each substance has a different specific heat capacity

Table 4. Specific heat of common materials

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