1.

4 Types of research

 Research can be classified in terms of:

 goal of research,
 specific objective of research,
 approaches of research,
 designs,
 the type of data used in research, and
 fields of study.
1.4.1 Classification of research based on the goal of research

 The nature of the problem that the researcher attempts

to solve could be theoretical or practical-building a
theory or solving immediate practical problems.
 These two types of problems that the researcher tries to
solve leads to two broad classifications of research:
 basic research, and
 applied research,
 1.4.2 Classification of research based on the specific objectives
of research
 Your interest could be describing a phenomenon of interest or
explaining causal link b/n two variables. Or you may be
interested in comparing two or more groups on the basis of
particular phenomenon.
 Research, therefore, can be classified differently when the
issues at hand are specific objectives of research. Hence,
according to the specific objectives research can be classified as:
 descriptive,
 explanatory,
 Exploratory
 Exploratory Research: This type of research aims to explore a
relatively uncharted or unfamiliar topic. It is conducted when
there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of the
subject.
 Descriptive Research: Descriptive research focuses on
describing and documenting the characteristics, behaviors, or
phenomena of interest. Descriptive research often involves
surveys, observational studies, and case studies to collect data
and describe the variables of interest.
 Explanatory Research: Explanatory research seeks to explain
the relationships or causal connections between variables. It
investigates the reasons behind observed phenomena and aims
to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Experimental
studies and quasi-experimental designs are commonly used in
explanatory research to manipulate independent variables and
observe their effects on dependent variables.
Note: A phenomenon refers to an observable event,
occurrence, or fact that is considered noteworthy,
interesting, or significant. It can be something that
happens in the natural world, social interactions, or any
other aspect of life. Phenomena can be studied,
analyzed, and explained through scientific, philosophical,
or sociological methods.
Causal: refers to the relationship between cause and
effect, or the idea that one event or factor (the cause)
directly influences or leads to another event or outcome
(the effect). Establishing causal relationships is a
fundamental aspect of scientific research, particularly in
fields such as experimental design, epidemiology, and
social sciences.
 1.4.3 Classification of research based on approaches research

 Research can be classified as qualitative research and

quantitative research when the issue at hand is the
approaches to be employed in conducting research.
1.4.4 Classification of research based on designs
 Another way of classifying research is by design. Once the
researcher has determined the specific question to be
answered and has operationalized the variables and research
questions into a clear, measurable hypothesis, the next task is
to consider a suitable research design.
 Although there are endless ways of classifying research
designs, they usually fall into one of three general categories:
 experimental,
 quasi-experimental, and
 non-experimental
 1.4.5 Classification of research by type of data

 Depending on the type of data generated and used research

can be classified as Primary research (also called field
research) and secondary research (also known as desk
research).
 Primary research involves the collection of data that does not
already exist whereas secondary research involves the
summary, collection and/or synthesis of existing data rather
than generating primary data, where data are collected from,
for example, research subjects or experiments.
 Primary research involves collecting new and original data
directly from the source. It is conducted by the researcher or
research team to address specific research objectives or
questions. Primary research methods include surveys,
interviews, experiments, observations, and focus groups.
 1.4.6 Classification of research by field of study
 Research can also be classified based on fields of study.
Therefore, there are:
 natural science research,
 social science research,
 educational research,
 behavioral science research,
 health science research, etc.
 1.5 Basic and Applied Research
 Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) is
experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire
new knowledge without looking for long term benefits other
than the advancement of knowledge.
 Thus, it is exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s
curiosity, interest or hunch.
 It is conducted without a practical end in mind although it
can have unexpected results that point to practical
applications
 Basic (fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist’s
curiosity or interest in a scientific question.
 The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to
create or invent something.
 Cont…

 There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that

result from basic research.
 For example, basic science investigations probe for answers
to questions such as:
How did the universe begin?
What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
How do slime molds reproduce?
What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
At what point in human history did logical thought arise?
Are living organisms the rule or the exception?
What is the mind-body connection?
 There have been many historical examples in which basic
research has played a vital role in the advancement of
scientific knowledge. Here are just a few important examples:
 Our understanding of genetics and heredity is largely due to
the studies on plants in the 1860's by G. Mendel, and the
experiments with fruit flies in the early 20th century by T.H.
Morgan.
 Many of today's electrical devices (e.g., radios, generators and
alternators) can trace each conducted by Michael Faraday in
1831. He discovered the principle of electromagnetic
induction, that is, the relationship between electricity and
magnetism.
 Thus, applied research is designed to solve practical problems
of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge's sake.
 One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to
improve the human condition. For example, applied
researchers may investigate ways to: improve agricultural
crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the
energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation.
 An Applied Microbiologist, for example, could evaluate
microorganisms for their possible application in the
production of useful industrial product, antibiotics,
improving soil fertility, use in food or beverage industry, etc.
 Here, the target of the research is not mere characterization
or description of the microbes to know their biology, rather
for their use to solve a particular problem to satisfy societal
needs.
 Applied research is often carried out by academic or
industrial institutions.
 More often an academic institution such as a university will
have a specific applied research program funded by an
industrial partner.
 Common areas of applied research include electronics,
informatics, computer science, and process engineering and
applied sciences.
 In general, basic research:
 Represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis;
 Employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend
findings beyond the group or situation; and
 Has little concern for the application of the findings or social
usefulness of the findings; whereas;
 Applied research:
 Is conducted in relation to actual problems and under the
conditions in which they are found in practice;
 Employs methodology that is not as rigorous as that of basic
research;
 Yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local
applicability and not in terms of universal validity.
 Unit 2 Steps in scientific research

 The unit is designed in a way that it guides you to the actual

practice of writing a research proposal enabling you write a
research proposal at the end of the course.
 At each section of the unit, you will develop fragment
components of a proposal to be finalized with full coverage of
components of typical proposal.
 The latter part of the section deals with how to write and
present scientific papers.
 This helps you to develop skills of organizing your research
data to be communicated to the scientific community.
 Thus, with completion of each section of the unit, you will be
equipped with additional tips and knowledge that will help
you to develop sound proposal and write scientific paper with
full confidence of presenting the research outputs.
2.1 Problem identification and developing research title
 In this section, you will learn about the concept of problem
identification in a research project.
 Then, the importance of problem identification and
definition of problems will be discussed.
 Finally, criteria to be used for prioritization of research
problems will be given due emphasis and information to be
included in the selected research problem will be elaborated.
 Moreover, discussion will be made on the concept of
hypothesis, nature of hypothesis, the need to develop a
research hypothesis, and types of hypothesis will be briefed.
 In addition, the procedure or techniques of how to utilize
academic library will be discussed.
 2.1.1 Problem identification
 Problem identification is a process of research topic
selection.
 The topic to be investigated can be obtained from
different sources.
 One of the most common sources of research ideas is the
experience of practical problems in the field.
 Another source for research ideas is the literature in a
specific field.
 Certainly, many researchers get ideas for research by
reading the literature and thinking of ways to extend or
refine previous research.
 In addition, the source of research problems/topics could be:
 Research interest of a professor/mentor,
 Discussion with earlier graduates,
 Researcher’s professional experience and interests,
 Current issues in sciences
Once the research problem is identified, it must be formulated
as a question that the scientific method can answer.
Moreover, the identified research problem should be specific,
and achievable. In general, it needs to be SMART.
Dear learner, look at the following examples; it begun with non-
question and gradually developed into a well formulated research
question.
Non-question: Climate change affects plant distribution.
This statement is a general fact. When this statement is changed
into a question, it can have the format of either of the following
questions:
 Cont…

1. Does climate change have effect on plants distribution?

(Poorly formulated question)
If you examine this question, it seems a research question as it
is written in the form of question that will be answered at the
end of the study.
However, it has some limitations. It is neither specific nor
achievable. Here, assessing the distribution of all plant (non-
specific) found on earth in relation to climate change is
unthinkable (not achievable).
2. Does climate change have effect on distribution of indigenous
trees species of Ethiopia? (Well formulated question).
This question is example of well formulated research question.
Because, the topic is specific, it deals with effect of climate
change only on indigenous trees of Ethiopia.
In addition, it is achievable although it needs intensive effort
and requires collaboration of different expertise.
 SMART is an acronym commonly used to guide the setting of
objectives and goals.
 S - Specific: Goals should be clear and well-defined, addressing the what,
why, and how of the objective. Being specific helps provide focus and
clarity.
 M - Measurable: Goals should be quantifiable or have some means of
measurement.
 A - Achievable: Goals should be realistic and attainable.
 R - Relevant: Goals should be aligned with the broader purpose, mission,
or objectives.
 T - Time-bound: Goals should have a specific time frame or deadline.
The following are among the purposes of stating and
defining a research problem:
1. It is the foundation for the further development of the
research proposal (research objectives, methodology, work
plan, budget, etc.),
2. It makes easier to find information and reports of similar
studies to be used while designing your study,
3. Enables you to systematically point out why the proposed
research on the problem should be undertaken and
what you hope to achieve with the study results.
This is important to emphasize when you present your
proposal to concerned bodies, community members,
relevant ministries and donor agencies that need to
support your study or those who will give their consent.
2.1.2 Criteria for prioritizing topics for research
 Each topic proposed for a research has to be judged according
to certain guidelines or criteria before making decision.
 Each proposed topic must be compared with all other options.
 The following guidelines or criteria are suggested to help you
in the process of selection of problem or research topic:
 Significance/ relevance
 Originality
 Urgency of data needed
 Acceptability of the study
 Practicability
 Applicability of results
 Ethical acceptability
2.1.3 Prioritizing Topics for Research
 Once research problems are identified and formulated, the
next step will be rating each research topic based on set
criteria or guidelines.
 Priority setting is an important activity when resources are
limited.
 Since it is difficult to conduct a research on every problems
identified at once, researcher should set prioritization
criteria.
 Then, rating or scaling each problem against the set criteria
is mandatory.
There are different types of rating:
 Sum of ranks method/modified
 Point allocation method.
 The usual type of rating is point allocation method.
 In this type of rating, final score given for each item is
determined by adding up points assigned for each topic.
 The topic that got highest mark could be considered as
priority problem and then proposal will be developed to it.
 2.1.4 Developing null and alternative hypotheses
Different experts defined hypothesis in different ways. For
instance:
 Eric (1966) defined hypotheses as ‘single tentative guesses,
good hunches assumed for use in devising theory or
planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible.
 Macleod and Hockey (1981) defined hypothesis as it is a
statement or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or
observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved.
 Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (1984) defined hypothesis as ‘a
tentative proposition suggested as a solution to a problem or
as an explanation of some phenomenon.
 Sarantakos (1993) described hypothesis as a tentative
explanation of the research problem, a possible outcome of
the research, or an educated guess about the research
outcome.
 Moreover, Creswell (1994) also defined hypothesis as it is a
formal statement that presents the relationship between an
independent variables.
Dear learner, from the above definitions, it is possible to
summarize that hypothesis is an educated guess, or a
prediction of causal relationships that can be tested; an
unanswered question that arises from a literature review of a
topic leads to such predictions.
 Nature of hypothesis

 Since the hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended

to be investigated, it should be specified before launching of
the planned research.
 This allows identifying the research objectives, the key
abstract concept involved in the research and its
relationship to both the stated problem and the literature
review.
A hypothesis needs to fulfill some basic qualities. Accordingly,
a hypothesis:
 should be testable –verifiable or falsifiable
 is neither moral nor ethical question
 neither too specific nor to general
 is a prediction of consequences
 Cont…
 should be considered valuable even if proven false
Purpose and importance of hypothesis in a scientific research
A research hypothesis has the following importance in research
project;
 It provides a tentative explanation of phenomena and
facilitates the extension of knowledge in an area
 It provides the investigator with a relational statement that is
directly testable in a research study.
 It provide direction to the research
 It provides a frame work for reporting conclusions of the
study
 It could be considered as the working instrument of theory,
hypothesis can be
 deduced from the theory and from other hypothesis. It could
be tested and predictable
 There are two types of hypothesis: the null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis.
Null hypothesis (H0)
The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put
forward, either because it is believed to be true or
because it is to be used as a basis for argument, but has not
been proved.
It has serious outcome if incorrect decision is made.
Alternative hypothesis (H1)
 The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis
test is set up to establish. It is opposite of Null Hypothesis, and
accepted only if H0 is rejected.
 Frequently “alternative” is the actual desired conclusion of the
researcher.
Dear learner, look at the following practical examples concerning
the development of hypothesis: If the research problem
targets the analysis of ‘Effect of Urea on water body’, the null
hypothesis could be that ‘Urea has no effect on water body’,
or ‘Urea has minimal effect than animal manure’. It is
possible to write it formally as:
H0: there is no difference between Urea and animal manure.
The alternative hypothesis might be that: The Urea has a different
effect, on average, compared to animal manure. It could also be
written as:
H1: the two fertilizers have different effects, on average.
The animal manure has less effect, on average, than Urea on
water body’. It is also possible to write the same
alternative hypothesis as follows:
H1: Urea has great effect on water body, on average.
In most cases, special consideration is given to null
hypothesis. This is due to the fact that:
 the null hypothesis relates to the statement being tested,
where as the alternative
 hypothesis relates to the statement to be accepted if / when
the null is rejected,
The final conclusion, once the test has been carried out, is
always given in terms of the null hypothesis. We either 'reject
H0 in favor of H1' or 'do not reject H0'; we never conclude
'reject H1', or even 'accept H1'.
 If we conclude 'do not reject H0', this does not necessarily
mean that the null hypothesis is true, it only suggests that
there is not sufficient evidence against H0
 in favor of H1; rejecting the null hypothesis then, suggests
that the alternative hypothesis may be true.