Identity and

Social
 Cultural and Social Identity in the
Caribbean
A society can be defined by its cultural identity and Caribbean society is no exception.
Cultural identity is a unique blueprint that distinguishes us from other societies.
Our cultural identity is composed of the unique
traits of Caribbean people. These fall under broad categories of ethnicity,
language, religion, customs, laws and art forms. The sum total of these
factors distinguishes the Caribbean from other regions. For example,
someone from North America can easily distinguish a member of
Caribbean society of African descent from other people of African
descent by the way they speak or the religious group they belong to. This
individual may sport dreadlocks, proclaim their religion as Rastafari and
speak in a Caribbean patois, and as such would not need to proclaim
themselves to be Caribbean to any individual who is cognisant of
Caribbean culture. Despite there being a recognisable overall ‘Caribbean’ identity,
however, there are present beneath this a myriad of differences throughout the region. These also make the Caribbean a unique entity in
that, although its people can be considered a society, their differences are easily recognisable. We can easily identify the Amerindian,
African, European and Asian cultural infl uences, for example, that permeate the everyday lives and the festivities of Caribbean society.
There are also marked differences among Caribbean countries as each has developed
in its own unique way. Geographical location, the European coloniser, size, type of government and ethnic makeup of each Caribbean state
contributes to making them different, one from another.
Caribbean diasporic societies that developed outside of the Caribbean have also formed their own identity and this may even be distinct
fromthat which exists within the Caribbean state from which they originated.
Little Havana in Florida, for example, has a distinct identity, one that has
marked differences from their Cuban counterparts, especially in terms of
political outlook as most Cuban migrants in Little Havana are against the Marxist Cuban regime.
Figure 7.1 is a map of the Caribbean region. Looking at it in different
ways can help to illustrate the different levels at which societies function
in the Caribbean and some of the ways in which Caribbean society is
culturally diverse.
 Cultural Diversity
There are many and varied cultures and cultural infl uences evident in the Caribbean, which have given
rise to cultural diversity. Since the early 1500s we have had a strong British, Spanish, French and Dutch
presence in the Caribbean, imparting various forms of European culture. Then we had the widespread
forced migration of West Africans bringing their culture from their homeland. Added to this is the Asian
culture brought by the East Indians and Chinese, who have been here in numbers since the 1830s.
Although their cultural presence may be the least felt, the Amerindian infl uence is evident, and this group
has been present since before all the others. Aspects of culture in the Caribbean where diversity is
evident are race, ethnicity, language, dress, traditions, beliefs, music and value systems.These broad
ethnic and racial groupings themselves can also be termed diverse. There is diversity in the array of ways
in which cultural forms that are common across them are practised within them. Among blacks of African
descent, for instance, there are differences in forms of language and religion resulting from the different
origins of those people from a range of tribes in West Africa and subsequently the ways in which culture
has evolved and been interpreted in the Caribbean. In Jamaica, for example, there are different variations
of Creole depending on the cultural background of the individuals who speak it and the parish where they
live.
The idea of cultural diversity implies that each group in a varied
society accepts and conforms to the idea of living in a communal setting of many different groups and
people
 Ethnicity

used to describe a distinct group

Cultural diversity within a community identifiable by racial origin or cultural
background (such as Indo-Trinidadians, Chinese-Caribbeans
the existence of a range of cultures, multi-cultures
or Afro-Caribbeans)..
or plurality of cultures within one society or
Key
community. Groups of people share similar spaces,
Terms
but have unique practices and traditions.

Race

refers to the common genetic traits

and physical features, such as bone
structure and skin, hair or eye colour,
shared by a group.
Positive and Negative Effects of Cultural
Diversity
There are both positives and equally identifi able drawbacks of living
in societies that are culturally diverse. Figure 7.3 outlines the main
positives and negatives of living in a diverse society, with some Caribbean
examples.
Positive effects Negative effects

• When different cultures mix, new cultural practices are Tainos called barbecuing as different ethnic groups have
created resulting in interculturation (the means by which added their own style to the mix.
the creolisation process occurs). For example, new genres of • The existence of different cultures can lead to racial/ethnic
music (Chutney, Soca) have been created in the Caribbean as discrimination.
a result of the merging of culturally disparate musical forms. • People from different cultural or ethnic backgrounds
Other examples are the wide variety of foods, methods of have different and infl exible views concerning lifestyle,
food preparation, languages, dress, festivals and religious religion and politics that can lead to tensions, strife and
occasions, dances (French, British, East Indian, Spanish and confl icts. For example, Hindu Trinidadians are usually
African). This is the idea of unity in diversityL: against interracial marriages and this causes tension as
• People who belong to different cultures usually have others sometimes label this preference as racist; the Black
different ways of thinking and analysing issues from a Power Revolution in Trinidad and Tobago in the 1970s show
variety of perspectives. Different cultures bring different how groups in society have expressed their dissatisfaction
experiences, which can be benefi cial as they provide with the social structure. One group may struggle to gain
Caribbean society with a sound and vast knowledge base. dominance and promote their culture as real and ideal.
• Different cultural practices among the a diverse • Different languages spoken by members of a diverse
population can be shared, which means that different population can cause communication problems.
cultural groups can learn about each other’s culture. • Issues of inferiority and superiority in terms of language,
This exposure to different cultures can lead to the food, dress, customs, and so on, can arise.
development of tolerance and acceptance of different
groups. People become more broad minded.
• Bigotry and discrimination are viewed as unacceptable.
People are tuned to recognise discriminatory acts and
readily point them out for sanctions to be applied.
Positive effects Negative effects

• There can be a relatively peaceful co-existence of • Educational institutions often establish syllabi that mostly
different groups within society, which can translate into focus on the culture of the dominant ethnicity in a society.
an enrichment of culture. For example, many traditional For example, Hindu, Rastafarian and Islamic teaching is not
festivals in the Caribbean are now shared among the widespread in many schools that are largely Christian based.
various communities, to include other cultures and feature • Individuals may become overly sensitive and view even the
different foods and cultural craft items (for instance, during simplest expression of racial pride as attempts at racism. For
the festivities at Diwali – a Hindu festival – items from example, it may be diffi cult for white Creoles to celebrate
both black and Indian culture are on display and sold). their European heritage because of the complex historical
• Cultural diversity aids tourism, which a lot of Caribbean power dynamics between colonisers and colonised.
countries depend upon to survive: tourists are intrigued • Ethnic groups can become marginalised as they no longer
by the diversity of the Caribbean and enjoy travelling to refl ect the stereotype of an ideal culture, such as the
a place where multiple cultures can be experienced. Chinese of Jamaica, sinhis or Gujaratis of Barbados.
• Diversity can enhance an export market: products of • Some indigenous traditions, languages and people may
signifi cance, such as curry and spices, are marketed and become marginalised over time as they fi nd it diffi cult to fit
sold under the diversity umbrella. into the modern diverse Caribbean society. For example, the
• A reputation for diversity and tolerance can encourage Wai Wai and Warao people of Guyana live in the forested
immigration from other communities, which can serve areas, almost forgotten by the rest of society.
to further enrich society generally. Many ethnic groups
migrate to the Caribbean knowing that they will be
accepted, offering their skills and resources to the region.
For example, Trinidad has a sizeable Syrian-Lebanese
population and many Asian groups continue to arrive in
Jamaica, establishing businesses on the island.
Ethnic and Cultural Differences in the Caribbean
The complex racial, ethnic and cultural mix that has become a main cultural trait of Caribbean society is a result
of colonisation, migration (forced and voluntary) and social mobility
Figure 7.4 The main ethnic groups of the Caribbean and their main contributions to Caribbean culture and identity
Ethnicity Origins and how they became part of Their main contributions to Caribbean culture
Caribbean and
society identity

The • Originally from Eurasia • Many ‘traditional’ cultural forms (e.g. barbecue,
indigenous • Early migrations over thousands of years hammock, canoe, place names)
peoples before the arrival of the Europeans • The use of maize, corn and cassava in food
(Amerindians)

Europeans • From Western Europe • Mainstream religion: Christianity, along with its
• Conquest and colonisation from the late festivals (such as Christmas, Carnival, Easter)
• Mainstream languages (English, Spanish,
15th French) and forms of Caribbean Creole that
century developed out of these
• The political situation in Europe • Laws and systems of governments
resulted in exchanges in Caribbean • Education system and approach
territories over the years • Legacies of social stratifi cation established by
colonialism and the plantation system
• Social norms (such as marriage, monogamy,
shaking of hands as a greeting or eating with a
knife and fork)
• Sport and recreation (such as cricket or
ballroom dancing)
• The Arts (for example, classical music)
Ethnicity Origins and how they became part of Their main contributions to Caribbean
Caribbean culture and
society identity

Africans • From West Africa • Hybrid religions: such as Vodou, Pocomania,

• Forced migration as slaves from c. 1500 to Mayal, Revivalism, Rastafari
provide free plantation labour • Music, dance and festivities (reggae,
• Emancipation in British territories in 1834 dancehall, calypso)
• Folklore and oral traditions of story-telling
• Alternative social norms, such as matrifocal
families
• Food, especially in the use of spices and
pulses

East Indians • Mainly from Northern India • Religion: Hinduism and festivals (such as
• Arrived as indentured labourers for Diwali); Islam and festivals (such as Eid)
plantations, mid 19th to early 20th centuries • Food (such as curry)
• Opted to stay at the end of their contracts • Music

Chinese • From China • Religion: Buddhism and other Chinese

• Arrived as indentured labourers for religious beliefs
plantations, mid to late 19th century • Food (such as stir fry)
• Opted to stay at the end of their contracts
The mainstream forms of societal institutions, such as the family,
education and religion, are all derived from the European cultural
traditions. In terms of religion, in particular, many members of Caribbean
society outwardly conform to the established Christian churches (both
Protestant and Roman Catholic) while adhering to some of their own
cultural traditions in the home. In the same way, Standard English (or
French, Spanish or Dutch) is viewed as the lingua franca of business,
government, education, the media, and so on, while patois tends to be
spoken in everyday and for private use.
While it is not mandatory for an individual or group to subscribe to
or accept all aspects of a society to become members, there must be
a certain level of acceptance of the general values and belief systems
of that space. For example, despite coming from a different tradition,
Caribbean Hindus and Muslims for the most part accept and adhere
to the legal systems of the Anglo-Christian Caribbean states in which
they live. This, again, is characteristic of Caribbean society: a general
tolerance and acceptance of the religious and cultural views of others.
The constitution of all Caribbean countries protects its citizens against all forms of discrimination and ensures their
human rights are respected.
Where different ethnic communities exist side by side, with differentcultures, tensions can arise between them. Guyana
and Trinidad, for example, both have a large East Indian population that has historically been kept apart from the Afro-
Caribbean community. This separateness has its roots in the plantation system when plantation owners sought to keep
the communities apart in order to be able to maintain social control– following the basic principle of ‘divide and rule’.
The fundamental antipathy this fuelled was then exacerbated by the fact that the arrival
of the East Indians drove down plantation wages and, after the end of
their contracts, they were granted land – a privilege not afforded to the
ex-slaves, who also laid claim to a stronger and more established sense
of ‘belonging’. Having lived in relative isolation on the plantations,these East Indian communities then continued their
isolated existence in their own communities established on this land, perpetuating their own
cultural traditions such as the patriarchal extended family, intermarriage,
culinary traditions and dress.In Guyana, and to an extent in Trinidad, ethnic and cultural differences
have extended into the political arena, with elections being contested
along ethnic lines, and underlying tensions have on occasion exploded
into violence between the communities as each attempts to lay claim to a
sense of social and civil ‘ownership’.Having begun their existence in the Caribbean at the bottom of the
social hierarchy, many Asians have managed, through the establishment
of small businesses based around the combined work of family members
and the acquisition of education, to render themselves upwardly
mobile. In Trinidad, for example, this has been accompanied by social
assimilation, with some members of the community shedding some
of their cultural traditions and adopting more ‘socially acceptable’
ones such as the nuclear family structure rather than the traditional
extended typ
Social Stratification
Caribbean society is quite paradoxical because, while it is quite diverse
and hybridised, it can also be highly stratifi ed and divided. Stratification
is society’s way of placing a value on individuals/groups. Therefore,
doctors and politicians are usually high up on the social ladder of any
society because healthcare and the making of policy and laws are seen
as crucial. Added to that, it is commonly believed that the talents and
skills required to carry out these roles are rare. To the contrary, working-
class labourers are not usually high up in the social strata because they
are considered easily replaceable as their jobs require no specialised
training or talent, and their poor renumeration does not enable them to
buy the influence or acquire the education or skills required for upward
social
mobility.
Social stratifi cation deals mostly with the position of whole groups
on the social scale, and not necessarily of individuals. This is actually a
form of discrimination as the status of individuals tends to be assessed
and summed up based on general assumptions about the ethnic, racial,
class or religious grouping that they belong to. For example, there is an
assumption in Jamaica that all Chinese living there enjoy wealth as a
result of their business interests. This is because many own grocery stores
and wholesale concerns, which has been the trend as far back as the late
1800s when Chinese ex-indentured servants used their wages to start
businesses. Likewise it is also generally assumed that African Caribbeans
must be of the poorer labouring class because of their history as unpaid
menial labourers. Stratifi cation in the Caribbean is also based on the social perceptions
among the population that have often formed as a result of historical
experiences from the colonial period, and the plantation system in
particular, which provided a model for the development of many modern
Caribbean societies. There are also instances where the social stratification systems of
countries outside of the region emerge as features in Caribbean society.
The East Indian caste system, for example, was brought with indentured
immigrants and is still quite influential in Trinidad and Guyana, and
even determines if individuals are suited for marriage or business
relationships.
 Plantation Society and its Impact on Social Stratification

The arrival of the Europeans in the Caribbean resulted in the

establishment of the plantation system of production. The plantation was
not merely a unit of production, it was an organised social system that
pervaded all aspects of social, cultural, economic and political life. It can
be argued that the plantation was the institution which played the most
signifi cant role in the development of Caribbean culture.
Economically, the plantation was geared to large-scale monoculture,
usually of a staple crop, mostly sugar, but also tobacco, cocoa or coffee,
for export to the metropole. Any needs were imported into the region
from the metropole, including technology. The plantations were selfsuffi
cient communities existing more or less in isolation. Labour was
supplied in different periods by African slaves or indentured labourers
(mainly from Asia) who suffered hardships and oppression.
Plantation Society under Slavery

During slavery, there was no social mobility in the plantation system.

Plantation society was a closed system and an individual’s ascribed
social status was determined by race and colour. Wealth also played
a part in social stratifi cation. Wealthy white plantation owners of
European origin held power, while labour was provided by enslaved
black Africans with no rights and who, under the laws of the society,
were deemed the property of the owners to dispose of as they liked.

Figure 7.5 Social stratifi cation during slavery

King

Governor

Whites (plantation owners,

managers, merchants and professionals)

Coloureds (mulattoes) and free blacks

(lawyers, artisans, small business owners, merchants)
Enslaved blacks
Stratification among slaves was based on where they worked, with the position of
house slave being privileged over that of field slave. House slaves often
 • The monarchy (king) had ultimate control over the colonial
government. Noblemen were usually appointed to important
government positions, including that of governor, in Caribbean
territories. These men formed the pinnacle of the Caribbean’s
social strata during the plantation period.
 • The plantation owners and managers, along with white
merchants (sellers of manufactured goods) and professionals
(doctors, lawyers and high-level civil servants) formed the
wealthy and professional classes that either migrated from
Europe to live in the Caribbean or were Creoles (whites born in
the Caribbean to European parents). They occupied the upper
end of the social strata and were known as the plantocracy. This
class in the Caribbean comprised the property owning set that
was allowed to vote and could be part of the colonial
government as local assemblymen of the British Caribbean, or
the white plantation class that controlled the local government of
other parts of the region, such as St Domingue/Haiti before the
1791 revolution. Many European-born plantation owners were
absentee landlords, leaving Creole whites effectively at the top
of the hierarchy.
 Below them were free coloureds (mulattoes) and free
blacks. This was a relatively small group and its members
were artisans, lawyers, shopkeepers and owners of small
businesses. They aspired to European culture and values.
Among the free coloureds there were complex subdivisions
based on one’s degree of whiteness as well as wealth,
education and connections to whites. Even whites who were
poorer than coloureds were still positioned above them in
the hierarchy, by virtue of race.
 The bottom of the hierarchy was occupied by the enslaved
blacks and coloureds. These were the labourers that were
the chattel of the plantation owners. Stratifi cation also
occurred within this group, dependant on skin colour and
whether one was a ‘house’ or ‘fi eld’ slave.
 Plantation Society after Emancipation (1838)
Even after emancipation, social stratifi cation remained rigidly based
on race, colour and wealth until well into the 20th century. Power
and wealth remained in the hands of the white few while the majority
remained powerless and poor. The arrival of indentured labourers from
Asia placed them at the bottom of the hierarchy, below the now freed
blacks who largely worked for themselves as peasant farmers (see
Figure 7.6). Although in principle they possessed more basic rights than
the slaves before them, they suffered hardships and restrictions on their
freedom of movement during their contracts. Over time, however, the
acquisition of education and wealth, once their contracts had ended,
allowed many members of the communities to rise through the social
strata and they subsequently became established in places such as
Trinidad and Guyana.

After emancipation a number of blacks and mulattoes were also

able to move up through the social order by means of acquired wealth.
These men, especially mulattoes, acquired voting rights by virtue of their
property holding and some became members of the local assemblies.
An example is the mulatto and prominent Jamaican assembly member,
George William Gordon, who was involved in the Morant Bay Rebellion.
He was the self-educated son of a Scottish planter who became a wealthy
businessman and landowner.
It can be argued that social stratifi cation in today’s Caribbean society
is still largely based on race and wealth. It has been engrained in the
consciousness of Caribbean people that whites are usually the owners of
the means of production, and so most of a colony’s wealth. Historically,
this was the group that controlled the government and, by dint of their
landholding and wealth, were allowed to participate in the democratic
process. This was a right not extended to the poorer ranks of society, that
comprised the majority of Afro- and Indo-Caribbeans, until universal
adult suffrage was introduced from 1944 onwards. It can also be argued
that the historically privileged position of whites creates preconceptions
in modern Caribbean society that automatically place them at the upper
end of the social hierarchy regardless of their actual wealth or any other
attribute that would normally confer a high status. In the same way, the
foundations for preconceptions about the position of Afro-Caribbeans in
the lower strata of society, despite any improvements in status through the
acquisition of wealth and/or education, can be said to be laid at the door
of their history of oppression and slavery.
Independence has been argued by some to be a watershed, with people of
European descent no longer viewed by the rest of society as superior; racial
discrimination is not promoted, social mobility is achievable and merit has
become an important factor infl uencing status and the acquisition of new
wealth rather than colour and ethnicity. On the other hand, others disagree,
pointing out the ethnic tensions that continue to exist in some territories and
arguing that the factors of race, colour and wealth still play a signifi cant role in
contemporary societies.
Figure 7.6 The stratifi cation system of
Trinidad in the period after
emancipation (Post 1845) Whites

Coloured/Mixed

Blacks

East Indians
END !
Click to edit the icon
Click to edit the icon