Fundamentals of

Computers
 1.Introduction to Computers

Computer-

The word computer comes from word compute which means to calculate.

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. You can use a computer to type
documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web.

You can also use it to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.

A computer is also called a Data Processor because it has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.

Data Processing-

Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable information.Data processing starts
with data in its raw form and converts it into a more readable format (graphs, documents, etc.)
There are six stages of data processing-
1. Data collection- Collecting data is the first step in data processing. Data is pulled from available sources.
(as data warehouses)
2. Data preparation- Once the data is collected, it then enters the data preparation stage. Data preparation,
often referred to as “pre-processing” is the stage at which raw data is cleaned up and organized. During
preparation, raw data is diligently checked for any errors. The purpose of this step is to eliminate bad data
( incomplete, or incorrect data) and begin to create high-quality data for the best business intelligence.
3. Data input- The clean data is then entered into its destination and translated into a language that it can
understand. Data input is the first stage in which raw data begins to take the form of usable information.
. Processing- During this stage, the data inputted to the computer in the previous stage is actually processed
for interpretation. Processing is done using machine learning algorithms.
5. Data output/interpretation- The output/interpretation stage is the stage at which data is finally usable to
non-data scientists. It is translated, readable, and often in the form of graphs, videos, images, plain text,
etc.).
6. Data storage-The final stage of data processing is storage. After all of the data is processed, it is then
stored for future use. While some information may be put to use immediately. When data is properly stored,
it can be quickly and easily accessed by members of the organization when needed.
Characteristics of Computer-
There are various characteristics of computer depending on there size , capacity and
specifications.
1. Speed: – As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to
complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per
second . Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond (10
to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.
2. Accuracy: – The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy.
The accuracy level is 7, determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: – A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without creating
any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy.
Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: – It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to prepare
payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: – Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be
stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want
to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: – Computer is a machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at
tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take
its own decision as you can.
7. No Feeling: – It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get tired even after
long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
8. Storage: – The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store data in
secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
Input Unit-The input unit of a computer is responsible for receiving data and instructions from various input devices and
converting them into a form that the computer can process. The input unit is typically composed of a variety of hardware
components, including ports, connectors, and controllers.
The main functions of the input unit include:
1.Data and instruction entry: The input unit allows the user to enter data and instructions into the computer using various input
devices, such as keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones.
2.Data conversion: The input unit converts the data and instructions received from the input devices into a digital form that the
computer can process. This involves converting analog signals (such as sound or images) into digital data using analog-to-
digital converters (ADCs).
3.Data transfer: The input unit transfers the converted digital data to the central processing unit (CPU) or memory for further
processing.
4.Error checking: The input unit checks the data received from input devices for errors and performs error correction as needed.
This ensures that the data entered into the computer is accurate and reliable.

Output Unit-The output unit of a computer is responsible for displaying or presenting the results of processing to the user in a
human-readable format. The output unit consists of various hardware components, including display screens, printers, speakers,
and headphones.
The main functions of the output unit include:
5.Data display: The output unit displays the processed data or results in a form that the user can easily read or understand. This
includes displaying text, graphics, or videos on a screen, or presenting the data in an audio format using speakers or
headphones.
6.Data conversion: The output unit converts the digital data received from the computer into a form that can be interpreted by
humans. This includes converting digital data into text, graphics, or sound, depending on the output device being used.
3.Data storage: The output unit allows users to store the processed data or results for future reference. This includes printing the
data on paper or saving it to a storage device, such as a USB drive or hard disk.
4.Feedback: The output unit provides feedback to the user, indicating that the data processing has been completed and the
results are ready for viewing or use.

Memory Unit-The memory unit of a computer system is responsible for storing and retrieving data and instructions that are
needed by the central processing unit (CPU) for processing. The memory unit is typically composed of electronic circuits that
are capable of storing and retrieving data at high speeds.
The main functions of the memory unit include:
1.Data storage: The memory unit stores the data and instructions that are needed by the CPU for processing. This includes
storing program instructions, data files, and system files.
2.Data retrieval: The memory unit retrieves the data and instructions from storage and sends them to the CPU for processing.
The speed at which data can be retrieved from memory is critical to the overall performance of the system.
3.Data transfer: The memory unit transfers data between the CPU and input/output devices, as well as between different areas of
memory. This ensures that data is accessible to the CPU and other parts of the system as needed.
4.Volatility: The memory unit may be volatile or non-volatile. Volatile memory loses its contents when power is turned off,
whereas non-volatile memory retains its contents even when power is turned off.
Arithmetic Logic Unit- The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data that is stored in the computer's memory.
The main functions of the ALU include:
1.Arithmetic operations: The ALU can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations on binary numbers.
2.Logical operations: The ALU can perform logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and XOR.
3.Comparison operations: The ALU can compare two values and determine if they are equal or not.
4.Shift operations: The ALU can shift bits in a binary number to the left or right.

Control Unit-The Control Unit (CU) is responsible for controlling the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and input/output
devices. The main functions of the CU include:
5.Instruction decoding: The CU decodes instructions that are stored in memory and determines which operation needs to be
performed.
6.Instruction execution: The CU executes the instructions by sending signals to the ALU and other parts of the CPU.
7.Timing and synchronization: The CU ensures that the different parts of the CPU and memory are synchronized and operate at
the correct time.
8.Interrupt handling: The CU handles interrupts, which are signals that are sent by input/output devices to request the attention
of the CPU.
Booting Process-
Booting is the process of starting up a computer system. When a computer is turned on or restarted, the booting process
begins. During this process, the computer checks for hardware components, loads the operating system, and prepares the
system for use.
The booting process typically involves the following steps:
1.Power-on self-test (POST) - When a computer is turned on, the first thing it does is perform a self-test to check that all
hardware components are working correctly. This is called the POST. If the POST detects an error, the computer may beep,
display an error message, or fail to start up.
2.Boot loader - After the POST, the computer searches for a boot loader. A boot loader is a program that loads the
operating system into memory. The boot loader is usually stored in the Master Boot Record (MBR) of the hard disk or in a
bootable device such as a USB drive or CD.
3.Loading the operating system - Once the boot loader is found, it loads the operating system into memory. The operating
system is the main software that controls the computer. The operating system provides a user interface and manages the
computer's hardware resources such as the CPU, memory, and storage devices.
4.Initialization - After the operating system is loaded, it initializes various system components, such as network
connections, input/output devices, and system services.
5.User Login - After the initialization is complete, the computer presents a login screen, where the user can enter a
username and password to access the system.
Once the user logs in, the computer is ready to be used.
There are two types of booting process:
1.Cold booting: Cold booting is the process of starting a computer from a completely shut down state. In this process, the
computer's power is turned on, and the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is loaded from the ROM (Read-Only Memory) chip.
The BIOS then performs a Power On Self Test (POST) to check the hardware components such as the RAM, hard drive, and
keyboard. After the POST is completed, the BIOS looks for the operating system in the boot device, loads it into memory, and
transfers control to the operating system.

2.Warm booting: Warm booting is the process of restarting a computer without turning off the power. In this process, the
computer's reset button is pressed, or the Ctrl+Alt+Delete key combination is used to initiate the reboot. The BIOS skips the
POST during a warm boot, and the operating system is reloaded from the system's RAM. Warm booting is faster than cold
booting since the hardware components have already been checked during the previous boot process.
Types of Programming Languages-
There are three main types of programming languages: machine languages, assembly languages, and high-level
languages.
1.Machine Languages - Machine language is the lowest-level programming language. It is written in binary code and is
specific tothe computer's hardware architecture. Machine language consists of a series of 0s and 1s that the computer's CPU
can directly understand and execute. It is difficult for humans to read and write machine language because it is not easily
readable or understandable.
Example- 01010101 (binary code) - this is an example of machine language, written in binary code.
Advantages:
2.Machine language is very fast and efficient, as it can be executed directly by the CPU without the need for any translation
or interpretation.
3.Machine language provides complete control over the hardware resources of the computer, which can be useful in
developing system-level software.
4.Machine language can be used to write very small programs that can fit into a limited amount of memory.

Disadvantages:
5.Machine language is difficult to read and write, as it consists of low-level instructions that are represented in binary code
or hexadecimal format.
6.Machine language is not portable, as programs written in machine language are specific to a particular CPU architecture
and operating system.
7.Machine language programming is time-consuming and error-prone, as it requires the programmer to have a deep
understanding of the hardware architecture and instruction set of the CPU.
2.Assembly Languages - Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is more human-readable than machine
language. It uses symbolic representation of the computer's machine language instructions and allows programmers to write
code using words or phrases instead of binary code. Assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture and
requires a translator program called an assembler to convert the assembly code into machine language.
•Example-MOV AX, 5 - this is an example of assembly language code, which moves the value 5 into the AX register.
•ADD R0, R1, R2 - this is an example of assembly language code, which adds the values in registers R1 and R2 and stores
the result in register R0.
Advantages:
1.Assembly language provides greater control over the hardware of the computer, which can be useful in developing system-
level software such as device drivers and operating systems.
2.Assembly language programs are typically faster and more efficient than those written in high-level programming languages,
as they can directly access and manipulate the hardware resources of the computer.
3.Assembly language code is often more compact than equivalent code written in high-level programming languages, which can
be an advantage in situations where memory is limited.
Disadvantages:
4.Assembly language programming is more complex and time-consuming than high-level programming languages, as the
programmer needs to have a deep understanding of the CPU architecture and instruction set.
5.Assembly language is not very portable, as programs written in assembly language are specific to a particular CPU
architecture and operating system.
6.Debugging assembly language programs can be challenging, as errors can be difficult to identify and correct due to the low-
level nature of the language.
3.High-Level Languages - High-level languages are programming languages that are closer to human language and are easier to
read and write. They are designed to be more abstract and less dependent on the computer's hardware architecture. High-level
languages are often used to develop software applications and programs, and they require a compiler or interpreter program to
convert the code into machine language. Some examples of high-level languages include C, C++, Java, Python, Ruby, and
JavaScript.
Example-int main()
{ int num1= 5;
int num2=10;+ num2;
printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d\n", num1, num2, sum);
}

Advantages:
4.High-level programming languages are easier to learn and use than low-level languages, as they use natural language-like
syntax and abstract away the details of hardware implementation.
5.High-level programming languages are portable, meaning that the same code can be run on multiple platforms without
modification.
6.High-level programming languages are more productive, as they enable programmers to write complex programs in less time
and with fewer errors.
7.High-level programming languages are easier to maintain, as they typically offer better support for code organization,
modularity, and reuse.
Disadvantages:
1.High-level programming languages can be slower and less efficient than low-level languages, as they often require more
resources to execute.
2.High-level programming languages can be less flexible and more limited in terms of the control they offer over the hardware
resources of the computer.
3.High-level programming languages can be more difficult to debug, as the abstraction layers they provide can make it harder
to trace the source of errors.

Data organization-
Data organization refers to the way in which data is arranged and structured in a computer system. There are several different
methods of organizing data, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
1.Sequential organization - In sequential organization, data is stored in a sequential manner, one after the other. This method is
simple and easy to implement, but it can be slow for large datasets and can lead to fragmentation.
4.Indexed organization - In indexed organization, data is organized using an index file that stores the location of the data. This
method allows for faster retrieval of data, but requires additional overhead to maintain the index.
5.Hash organization - In hash organization, data is stored in an unordered manner and accessed using a hash function. This
method is fast for large datasets, but can be slow for small datasets and can lead to collisions.
6.Hierarchical organization - In hierarchical organization, data is organized in a tree-like structure, with each node representing
a data element and its children representing sub-elements. This method is useful for representing relationships between data
elements, but can be difficult to implement and maintain.
5. Network organization - In network organization, data is organized in a more flexible manner than hierarchical organization,
allowing for more complex relationships between data elements. This method is useful for representing complex data
relationships, but can be difficult to implement and maintain.
The choice of data organization method depends on the type of data being stored, the amount of data, and the
application requirements. A good data organization method should be efficient, fast, and easy to maintain.
Drives, Files And Directories-
1.Drives - A drive is a storage device, such as a hard disk, solid-state drive (SSD), or optical drive (CD/DVD). Drives can be
either internal (built into the computer) or external (connected via USB or other interface).
Disk drive-A disk drive is a general term for any device that uses spinning disks to store data. This can include hard disk drives
(HDDs), optical drives, and floppy drives.
Hard disk drive (HDD) is a type of disk drive that uses magnetic disks to store data. It is commonly used in desktop computers
and laptops as the primary storage device for the operating system and user files.
Floppy Drives- floppy drive is a type of disk drive that uses small, flexible disks to store data. It was commonly used in older
computers but has largely been replaced by other storage devices such as USB drives and SD cards. Floppy disks typically had
a very low capacity, usually around 1.44 MB.
2.Files - A file is a collection of data that is stored on a drive. Files can be of different types, such as text files, image files,
audio files, and executable files. Each file has a unique name and is stored in a specific location on the drive.
Types of File-
1. Data files
2. Text files
3. Program files
4. Directory files and so on.
File Attributes-A file has a name and data. It also includes:
1.File name - the name given to a file when it is created, which can be used to identify and locate the file on a computer system.
2.File size - the amount of storage space a file takes up on a computer's storage device, measured in bytes, kilobytes,
megabytes, or gigabytes.3.File type - the format or structure of a file, which determines how it can be opened, read, and
processed by different software applications.
4.File location - the directory or folder where a file is stored on a computer system.
5.dentifier - this attribute refers to the unique name or number that identifies a particular file. It can be used to distinguish one
file from another, even if they have the same name.
6.Protection - also known as file permissions, this attribute determines who can access or modify the file, and what actions they
can perform on it. For example, a file may be read-only, meaning it can be viewed but not edited or deleted.
7.Time - this attribute includes both the creation time and the modification time of a file. The creation time is the date and time
when the file was first created, while the modification time is the date and time when the file was last modified.
8.Date - this attribute refers to the date when the file was last modified, typically in a human-readable format (e.g.
dd/mm/yyyy).
5.User identification - this attribute identifies the user who created or last modified the file, and is typically a username or user
ID associated with the user's account on the computer system.

File Operations-
1.Create - this operation allows you to create a new file in a specified location on your computer or storage device. This
operation typically involves selecting a file name and specifying the file type.
2.Read - this operation allows you to open and view the contents of a file. You can perform this operation using various
applications, such as text editors or media players.
3.Write - this operation allows you to modify the contents of a file. You can perform this operation using a text editor, word
processor, or other application that allows you to edit files.
4.Copy - this operation allows you to duplicate a file and save it to a different location. This can be useful for backing up
important files or sharing them with others.
5.Move - this operation allows you to move a file from one location to another. This can be useful for organizing files or freeing
up space on your storage device.
6.Delete - this operation allows you to remove a file from your computer or storage device. This can be useful for cleaning up
unnecessary files or freeing up space on your storage device.
7.Rename - this operation allows you to change the name of a file. This can be useful for giving files more descriptive names or
organizing them in a more meaningful way.
8.Open: The open operation is used to open a file before performing any operation on it. It takes the filename and the mode in
which the file is to be opened as arguments. The modes can be read, write, or append.
9.Close: The close operation is used to close the file after performing all the operations on it.
10.Append: The append operation is used to append data to the end of the file. It takes the filename, buffer, and the number of
bytes to be appended as arguments.
11.Seek: The seek operation is used to move the file pointer to a specific position in the file. It takes the filename, offset, and the
reference point as arguments.
12.Get Attribute: The get attribute operation is used to retrieve the attributes of the file, such as the filename, size, creation time,
modification time, and access time.
13.Set Attribute: The set attribute operation is used to set the attributes of the file, such as the filename, size, creation time,
modification time, and access time.
3.Directories - A directory (also known as a folder) is a container that holds files and other directories. Directories are used to
organize files into logical groups and make them easier to find and manage. Directories can be nested, allowing for a hierarchical
organization of files and directories.

C:\Files

C:\
windowsfile C:\data files C:\Program
s files

Files
Files as
including
friends
letters etc.

Here C is the root directory, that will hold the data as sub directory windows files, data files, Program files and files as letter and
friends.
Storage Devices-
Storage devices are hardware components used to store and retrieve digital information. They come in different sizes,
capacities, and types, and are an essential component of modern computer systems.
There are two Types of storage Devices-
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Storage Devices

Primary Memory-
Primary memory, also known as main memory or internal memory. It is a type of computer memory that is directly accessible
to the CPU (central processing unit) for processing data. It is a volatile memory, which means that it loses its contents when the
computer is turned off. A special slot is provided onto the motherboard for plugging up the rectangle circuit chip.
There are two types of primary memory:
3.Random Access Memory (RAM) - This is the most common type of primary memory, which stores data and program
instructions temporarily while the computer is running. It allows for fast access to data and instructions, but is limited in size.
Characteristics-
•Fast access: RAM is used for storing data and programs that are currently being used by the computer's CPU. It is very fast
and allows for quick access to data.
•Limited storage: The amount of data that can be stored in RAM is limited and depends on the capacity of the RAM modules
installed in the computer.
•Can be written and rewritten: RAM is a read/write memory, which means that data can be written to and erased from it
multiple times.
1.SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM is a type of RAM that uses flip-flops to store data. It is faster and more expensive than DRAM,
but requires more power to operate. SRAM is often used for cache memory in computers and other electronic devices.
2.DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM is a type of RAM that uses capacitors to store data. It is slower and less expensive than
SRAM, but requires less power to operate. DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers and other electronic
devices.

Difference between sram and dram-

3.Method of storing data: SRAM stores data using flip-flops, which are electronic circuits that can hold a single bit of data
using transistors. DRAM stores data using capacitors, which can hold a charge representing a single bit of data.
4.Power consumption: SRAM consumes more power than DRAM because it requires a constant flow of electricity to maintain
the data stored in its flip-flops. DRAM requires periodic refreshing to maintain the charge in its capacitors, but it consumes less
power overall.
5.Speed: SRAM is faster than DRAM because it doesn't need to refresh data like DRAM does. Data can be accessed more
quickly from SRAM than DRAM, making it a better choice for high-speed applications such as cache memory.
6.Density: DRAM is more densely packed than SRAM, meaning that it can store more data in a smaller space. This makes
DRAM a better choice for large-scale memory applications, such as the main memory in a computer.
7.Cost: SRAM is more expensive than DRAM because it is faster and requires more transistors to store data. DRAM is cheaper
because it requires fewer components to store data.
2.Read-Only Memory (ROM) - This is a type of primary memory that is used to store permanent data and program instructions
that are required to boot the computer or run basic system processes. It cannot be modified or erased, and is non-volatile, which
means that it retains its contents even when the computer is turned off.
Characteristics-
•Non-volatile memory: Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that its contents are retained even when the
computer is turned off or restarted.
•Slow access: ROM is used for storing permanent data and programs that are required by the computer's operating system and
other critical functions. It is slower than RAM and does not allow for quick access to data.
•Large storage: The amount of data that can be stored in ROM is typically larger than RAM, although it is still limited.
•Can only be written once: ROM is a read-only memory, which means that data can only be written to it once during its
manufacturing process. The data stored in ROM cannot be erased or changed by normal means.
Types of ROM-
1. PROM-PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a type of memory that can be programmed only once. It is
programmed using a PROM programmer, which blows fuses in the memory cells to permanently store the data or program
code. Once programmed, a PROM cannot be changed or erased.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a type of memory that can be programmed and erased multiple
times. It is programmed through a process called "burning" using high voltage programming equipment. Once programmed,
the EPROM retains its contents even when power is turned off. To erase an EPROM, it must be exposed to ultraviolet light
for a specific amount of time.
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a type of memory that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed. Unlike EPROM, EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed without removing it from the circuit board.
EEPROM is commonly used in applications where data needs to be updated or changed frequently, such as in
microcontrollers, computer BIOS, and some consumer electronics devices.
Secondary storage devices - Secondary storage devices are used for long-term storage of data that is not currently being used by
the computer. It is a non-volatile memory medium that preserves data until and unless it has been deleted or overwritten. Here
are some common examples of secondary storage devices:
1.Floppy Disk (FD) - This is a type of removable storage device that uses magnetic disks to store data. It was widely used in the
past, but has become obsolete due to its limited storage capacity and slow read/write speeds.
A magnetic disk is a type of storage device that uses magnetized particles to store data. It consists of a flat circular
disk coated with a magnetic material that can be magnetized in different directions to represent data. The disk is divided into
concentric circles called tracks, and each track is further divided into sectors. The data is written and read using a read-write
head that moves back and forth across the disk.
Types of Floppy Disk-
1. 8-inch floppy disks were one of the earliest forms of magnetic storage media used for computer data storage. They were
introduced in the late 1960s and were commonly used throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, especially in large mainframe
computers.
These floppy disks were large and flexible, measuring 8 inches (about 20 cm) in diameter, with a capacity of 80 kilobytes (KB)
to 1.2 megabytes (MB). They were housed in a protective paper or plastic jacket, and the disk inside was made of a flexible
plastic material coated with a magnetic oxide layer.
Due to their large size and low storage capacity, 8-inch floppy disks were eventually replaced by smaller, more efficient floppy
disk formats like the 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch floppy disks, which could store more data in smaller form factors.
5.25-inch floppy disk: It was the first type of floppy disk introduced in the 1970s and was widely used in personal computers
until the mid-1990s. These disks had a storage capacity of 360 KB or 1.2 MB (double-sided), and were often referred to as
"floppy" because the disk inside the protective jacket was flexible.
3.5-inch floppy disk: This type of floppy disk was introduced in the 1980s and became the standard for portable storage in the
1990s. These disks had a higher storage capacity compared to the 5.25-inch disks, with a standard capacity of 1.44 MB. The disk
inside the protective jacket was rigid and had a hard plastic case.
Advantages:
1.Portable: Floppy disks are small and lightweight, making them highly portable and easy to transport between computers.
2.Inexpensive: Floppy disks were relatively inexpensive compared to other storage media at the time of their popularity.
3.Universal compatibility: Floppy disks were a standard storage medium for personal computers for many years, which meant
that they could be read by almost any computer with a floppy disk drive.
Disadvantages:
4.Low storage capacity: Floppy disks had a limited storage capacity compared to other storage media, with capacities ranging
from 360 kilobytes to 1.44 megabytes for the most common sizes.
5.Fragile: Floppy disks were prone to physical damage from bending or exposure to magnetic fields, which could cause data loss
or corruption.
6.Slow transfer speeds: Reading and writing data to a floppy disk was a slow process compared to other storage media, making
it less suitable for storing large files or transferring data quickly.

2. Compact Disc (CD) - This is a type of optical disc that uses laser technology to read and write data. CDs can store up to 700
MB of data and are commonly used for storing music, movies, and software.
An optical disk is a type of storage medium that uses a laser to read and write data. It consists of a flat circular disk
made of plastic or glass, coated with a reflective layer and a protective layer. Data is recorded on the disk as a series of pits and
lands on the reflective layer, and these pits and lands are read by a laser as the disk spins.
1.CD-R (Compact Disc - Recordable): This is a type of CD that can be recorded on once using a CD burner. Once data is
recorded on a CD-R, it cannot be erased or modified. CD-Rs are commonly used for music, data backup, and other applications
where permanent data storage is required.
2.CD-RW (Compact Disc - Rewritable): This is a type of CD that can be recorded and erased multiple times using a CD burner.
CD-RWs are commonly used for temporary data storage and backup.
Advantages:
3.High storage capacity: CDs have a high storage capacity, with standard CDs capable of holding up to 700 megabytes (MB) of
data. This made them useful for storing large files, such as music or video.
4.Easy to distribute: CDs are relatively easy to distribute, with the ability to make copies quickly and cheaply. This made them
popular for music and software distribution.
5.Universal compatibility: CDs are compatible with most computers and CD players, making them a convenient storage
medium.
6.Durable: CDs are relatively durable and resistant to damage, which made them a reliable form of storage for many years.
Disadvantages:
7.Prone to scratches: CDs can be easily scratched, which can cause data loss or corruption. This made them less reliable for
long-term storage or archival purposes.
8.Limited lifespan: CDs have a limited lifespan, with the potential for data degradation or disc rot over time. This made them
less suitable for long-term storage of important data.
9.Easily replaced by digital media: CDs have largely been replaced by digital media and streaming services, which offer greater
convenience and flexibility in terms of accessing and storing data.
3.Hard Disk Drive (HDD) - This is a non-volatile storage device that uses magnetic disks to store data. It provides high capacity
storage and relatively fast read/write speeds. It is commonly used in desktop and laptop computers as the main storage device.
Advantages:
1.Large storage capacity: HDDs have a large storage capacity, with some models capable of holding terabytes (TB) of data. This
makes them useful for storing large amounts of data, such as media files and backups.
2.Cost-effective: HDDs are generally more cost-effective than other storage media, such as solid-state drives (SSDs). This makes
them a popular choice for budget-conscious users.
3.Universal compatibility: HDDs are compatible with most computers and operating systems, making them a convenient form of
storage.
4.Durability: HDDs are relatively durable and resistant to damage, making them a reliable form of storage for many years.
Disadvantages:
5.Slower speeds: HDDs are slower than other storage media, such as SSDs, which can affect the performance of the computer.
6.Prone to physical damage: HDDs have moving parts, which can be damaged by drops or other physical impact. This can result
in data loss or corruption.
7.Not suitable for portable devices: HDDs are not suitable for portable devices, such as laptops and tablets, as they are bulky and
can be damaged by movement.
8.Noise and heat: HDDs can produce noise and heat during operation, which can be a concern in some environments.
4. Pen Drive - Also known as a USB flash drive or thumb drive, this is a small, portable storage device that can be plugged into
a USB port. It is commonly used for transferring data between computers or for storing small amounts of data. They have
become a popular form of storage due to their convenience and portability.
Advantages:
1.Portable: Pen drives are small and lightweight, making them easy to carry around and transport.
2.Large storage capacity: Pen drives are available in a wide range of storage capacities, from a few gigabytes (GB) to several
terabytes (TB).
3.Easy to use: Pen drives are easy to use and require no additional software or drivers to be installed.
4.Fast data transfer rates: Pen drives have fast read and write speeds, making it easy to transfer files quickly between
computers.
Disadvantages:
5.Prone to physical damage: Pen drives can be easily lost or damaged, which can result in data loss.
6.Limited lifespan: Pen drives have a limited lifespan and can become unreliable after extended use.
7.Security risks: Pen drives can be easily infected with viruses or malware, which can compromise the security of the data
stored on them.
8.Data corruption: Pen drives can be prone to data corruption and errors, particularly if they are not ejected safely from the
computer.
5.DVD-DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs) are a type of optical disc storage media that can store large amounts of digital data,
including movies, music, and software. There are several types of DVDs, including:
9.DVD-ROM: Read-only memory discs that are typically used to distribute software, movies, and other media.
10.DVD-R and DVD+R: Write-once discs that can be recorded with data or media content once and then become read-only.
11.DVD-RW and DVD+RW: Rewritable discs that can be erased and rewritten multiple times.
12.DVD-RAM: A type of rewritable disc that is designed for use in digital video recorders and other devices.
Advantages of DVDs:
1.Large storage capacity: DVDs have a large storage capacity of up to 8.5 GB, making them ideal for storing high-quality video
and audio content.
2.Compatibility: DVDs can be played on a wide range of devices, including DVD players, computers, and gaming consoles.
3.Durability: DVDs are relatively durable and resistant to scratches and other physical damage.
4.Cost-effective: DVDs are a cost-effective storage medium compared to other forms of media, such as magnetic tapes.
Disadvantages of DVDs:
5.Limited lifespan: DVDs have a limited lifespan and can deteriorate over time, which can result in data loss or corruption.
6.Prone to scratches: DVDs can be prone to scratches, which can cause data loss or make the disc unplayable.
7.Easily replaced by digital media: DVDs have been largely replaced by digital media and streaming services, which offer
greater convenience and flexibility.
8.Region coding: DVDs are often region-coded, which can limit their compatibility with certain devices in certain regions.

6. Solid State Drives(SSD)- It is a type of storage device that uses NAND-based flash memory to store data. Unlike traditional
hard disk drives (HDDs), SSDs have no moving parts, which makes them faster, more durable, and more power-efficient.
SSDs are available in different sizes and capacities, ranging from a few gigabytes to several terabytes. They are commonly used
as secondary storage devices in computers, where they provide faster read and write speeds compared to HDDs. SSDs are also
used in mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, where their low power consumption and small form factor make them
ideal.
Input/Output Devices-
An I/O (input/output) device is any device that allows a computer to communicate with the outside world, such as a keyboard,
mouse, printer, or monitor.

Monitor- The monitor is an output device that displays visual information generated by the computer. A monitor, also known as
a display screen or computer screen, is an electronic device that displays images and text generated by a computer. Monitors
come in various types and sizes, and are a key component of a computer system. Here are some of the main types of monitors:
1.Monochrome monitors: These monitors display only one color, usually green, white, or amber, on a black background. They
were common in the early days of computing but are now rare.
2.Color monitors: These monitors can display multiple colors and are the most common type of monitor today. They use either
LCD or LED technology.
3. Grayscale monitors:-A grayscale monitor is a type of monitor that displays images in shades of gray rather than in color.
These monitors are used primarily in medical imaging, such as X-rays and MRIs, where color is not necessary and accurate
visualization of detail and contrast is crucial.
Monitors can be categorized based on the type of signal they receive: digital or analog.
3.Analog monitors: Analog monitors receive an analog signal, which is a continuous signal that varies in voltage or frequency
to represent information. CRT monitors and some older LCD monitors are analog.
4.Digital monitors: Digital monitors receive a digital signal, which is a binary signal composed of ones and zeros that represent
information. This type of monitor uses an interface such as DVI (Digital Video Interface), HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia
Interface), or DisplayPort to receive the digital signal from a computer or other device.
1.CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor - This is an older type of monitor that uses a large, bulky tube to display images. It was
commonly used in the past, but has been largely replaced by newer types of monitors. The basic working principle of CRT
involves the use of an electron gun, which emits a beam of electrons towards a phosphor-coated screen. The beam of electrons is
controlled by an electromagnetic field, which directs the electrons to specific locations on the screen. When the electrons hit the
phosphor coating on the screen, they cause it to emit light, which creates the visual image.
These are available in different sizes and resolutions.
2.LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitor - This is a flat-panel display that uses liquid crystals to display images. It is lighter,
thinner, and more energy-efficient than CRT monitors. LCD monitors are commonly used in desktop and laptop computers.
The technology works by using liquid crystal cells that are sandwiched between two transparent electrodes, which are then
illuminated by a backlight to create a visual image. The backlight used in LCD displays is typically made up of a series of
fluorescent or LED lights that are arranged behind the liquid crystal cells. These lights emit a constant, even source of light that
illuminates the liquid crystal cells and creates the visual image.
3.Plasma Display-A plasma display is a type of flat-panel display technology that uses small cells containing plasma gas to
create images. Plasma displays were once a popular technology used in large-screen TVs and commercial displays. However,
they have largely been replaced by newer display technologies such as LCD and OLED.
These monitors are made of an array of pixels,each composed of three phosphor subpixels- Red, Green, Blue.
The basic working principle of a plasma display involves using small cells filled with a mixture of noble gases (such as neon or
xenon) and a small amount of mercury vapor. Each cell has two electrodes, a cathode and an anode. When a voltage is applied
across the electrodes, the gas inside the cell ionizes and becomes a plasma.
As the plasma forms, it emits ultraviolet light, which then causes the phosphor coating on the front of each cell to glow,
producing the desired image. The cells are arranged in a grid pattern, with each cell representing a single pixel on the display.
4.LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor - This is a type of LCD monitor that uses LED backlighting instead of traditional
fluorescent backlighting. LED monitors are more energy-efficient and have better color accuracy than LCD monitors.
5. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) Monitor - This is a newer type of monitor that uses organic compounds to create light
and display images. OLED monitors have better contrast ratios and viewing angles than LCD and LED monitors.
6.Curved Monitor - This is a monitor with a curved screen that is designed to provide a more immersive viewing experience.
Curved monitors are commonly used for gaming or for applications that require a large, panoramic view.

Printer-
A printer is an output device that produces hard copies of digital documents or images. There are main two types of printers:
1.Impact Printers: Impact printers use a printing mechanism that physically strikes a ribbon or paper with an inked element to
create a printed image. The inked element can be in the form of a print head or a set of pins that strike the ribbon or paper to
produce characters. Impact printers are typically louder and slower than non-impact printers, but they are more durable and can
produce multi-part forms.
Examples of impact printers include dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printers, and line printers.
2.Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers do not use any striking mechanism to create printed images. Instead, they use other
methods such as heat or electrostatic charges to produce characters on paper or other media. Non-impact printers are generally
faster and quieter than impact printers, but they can be more expensive and less durable.
Examples of non-impact printers include laser printers, inkjet printers, thermal printers, and dye-sublimation printers.
1. Dot Matrix Printer - This is an older type of printer that uses a print head to strike an inked ribbon, producing characters or
images on paper. Dot matrix printers are slower and less efficient than inkjet or laser printers, but are still used in certain
industries, such as banking or shipping. A dot matrix printer is a type of impact printer that uses a print head containing a matrix
of pins that strike an inked ribbon to create characters or images on paper. The print head moves back and forth across the page,
striking the ribbon against the paper to produce a dot matrix pattern.
Dot matrix printers are capable of producing high-quality text and graphics, as well as multipart forms with carbon copies. They
are also durable and can handle printing on a wide range of paper types, including labels and envelopes.

2.Line Printer-A line printer is a type of impact printer that prints one entire line of characters at a time, as opposed to printing
one character at a time like a dot matrix printer. Line printers are typically used for high-volume printing applications, such as
printing invoices or bills, where speed is a priority.
There are two main types of line printers: drum printers and chain printers.
1.Drum Printers: Drum printers use a cylindrical drum with raised characters or images on its surface. As the drum rotates, it
passes over an inked ribbon, which is pressed against the paper to create the printed image. The print quality of drum printers is
generally higher than that of chain printers, but they are also more expensive and complex to operate.
2.Chain Printers: Chain printers use a chain with raised characters or images on its links. As the chain moves, it strikes an inked
ribbon against the paper to create the printed image. Chain printers are typically faster and less expensive than drum printers,
but they also have a lower print quality.

3.DasiyWheel Printer-A daisy wheel printer is a type of impact printer that uses a print head with a wheel-shaped mechanism
that contains a set of metal or plastic spokes, each with a raised character or symbol on the end. The spokes are arranged in a
circular pattern resembling a daisy, hence the name "daisy wheel".
When a character is to be printed, the print head rotates the daisy wheel so that the correct character is positioned at the print
position. The print head then strikes the selected spoke against an inked ribbon, pressing it against the paper to create the printed
image.
Daisy wheel printers were once widely used for producing high-quality text documents, such as reports and letters, and were
known for their crisp, precise print quality. However, they were slower and more expensive than other types of printers, such as
dot matrix printers.
Types of Non impact Printer-
1.Inkjet Printer - This is a type of printer that uses liquid ink to produce images on paper. Inkjet printers are popular because
they are relatively inexpensive and can produce high-quality color prints.
2.Laser Printer - This is a type of printer that uses toner (a type of powder) to produce images on paper. Laser printers are faster
and more efficient than inkjet printers, and are often used in office settings.
3.Thermal Printer - This is a type of printer that uses heat to produce images on specially coated paper. Thermal printers are
often used for printing receipts or shipping labels.

4. Dye-sublimation Printer - This is a type of printer that uses heat to transfer dye onto paper or other materials. Dye-
sublimation printers are often used for printing high-quality photographs or artwork.
Scanners, digitizers, and plotters- These are all types of input/output devices that are used for specific purposes:

Scanners - A scanner is an input device that converts a physical document or image into a digital image that can be viewed,
edited, or stored on a computer. Scanners are commonly used in offices and homes for tasks such as scanning documents,
receipts, or photographs.
Types of scanners-
1. Image Scanners-
•Flatbed scanners: These are the most common type of scanner and are used to scan flat documents such as papers, photographs,
and magazines. Examples include the Epson Perfection V600 and the Canon CanoScan LiDE400.
•Sheet-fed scanners: These scanners are used to scan documents that are fed through the scanner, such as receipts or business
cards. Examples include the Fujitsu ScanSnap iX1500 and the Brother ADS-1250W.
•Handheld scanners: These are portable scanners that can be used to scan documents on the go. Examples include the Doxie Go
SE and the VuPoint Magic Wand.

Special Purpose Scanners-

1.OCR-OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition, which is the technology that enables machines to recognize printed or
handwritten text characters and convert them into machine-readable text. Methods used in OCR-
1.Matrix matching –It compares the scanned character with a collection of character matrix. If any one of the prescribed
matrices of dots is matched with the scanned character, then it is converted into the corresponding ASCII code.
2.Feature extraction is the process of identifying and extracting important features or patterns from raw data, such as images or
sound signals, in order to facilitate analysis and processing. In image processing, for example, feature extraction techniques can
be used to identify edges, corners, or other salient features that can be used to identify objects or recognize patterns. In natural
language processing, feature extraction techniques can be used to identify important words or phrases, or to generate numerical
representations of text data that can be used for machine learning tasks.

2.OMR-
OMR stands for Optical Mark Recognition. It is a technology that uses specialized scanners or readers to detect and interpret
marked data on printed forms or documents. The marks are usually made by filling in bubbles, ticking boxes, or making small
marks on pre-defined areas on the document.
OMR technology is often used in applications such as surveys, questionnaires, multiple-choice tests, and voting ballots. It
provides a quick and accurate way to collect and process large amounts of data, which can then be analyzed electronically.
OMR is commonly used in education, healthcare, market research, and government applications.

Working of OMR-
1.conductivity of graphite –In this, the dark mark is recognized by conductivity of graphite. The boxes are needed to darken by
pencil only because lead pencils have large numbers of magnetic particles.
2.reflection of light- It uses the concept of light reflection. For recognizing the darked areas, a thin light ray is focused over the
paper surface. The dark areas transmit the directed light, by which the filled box is recognized.

3. Barcode reader- A barcode reader, also known as a barcode scanner, is an electronic device that can read and decode
information stored in a barcode. A barcode is a series of vertical lines of varying width and spacing, which represent different
characters, numbers, or symbols.
When a barcode reader is pointed at a barcode, it emits a beam of light that is reflected off the barcode and detected by a
photosensitive element in the scanner. The scanner then converts the pattern of light into electrical signals, which are processed
and decoded by the scanner's software to extract the information stored in the barcode.
There are several types of barcode readers available, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. Here are some common
types of barcode readers:
1.Pen-type readers: These are the most basic and inexpensive barcode readers. They consist of a pen-shaped device with a light
source and a photodiode that detects the reflected light. The user moves the pen over the barcode, and the reader detects and
decodes the barcode.
2.Laser scanners: These are handheld barcode readers that use a laser beam to scan the barcode. The laser beam scans the
barcode and creates a pattern of light that is reflected back to the scanner. The scanner then detects and decodes the barcode
using the reflected light.
3.CCD scanners: These are also handheld barcode readers that use a Charged-Coupled Device (CCD) sensor to capture the
image of the barcode. The sensor consists of an array of tiny light sensors that capture the reflected light from the barcode. The
scanner then processes the image to decode the barcode.
4.Image scanners: These are high-end barcode readers that use a camera to capture an image of the barcode. The scanner then
processes the image to decode the barcode. Image scanners can read both 1D and 2D barcodes and can also read damaged or
poorly printed barcodes.
5. Slot scanners – It is used to read barcodes on flat surfaces such as identification cards, driver's licenses, or other small items.
Slot scanners are similar to laser or CCD scanners, but they have a narrow slot that the item to be scanned is passed through.
The slot scanner contains a light source and a sensor that detects the light that is reflected back from the barcode.
4.MICR – It stands for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. It is a technology used to process and verify the authenticity of
documents such as checks, money orders, and other financial instruments.
MICR technology involves printing characters using magnetic ink that contains iron oxide particles, which can be magnetized.
The characters are printed in a special font known as MICR E-13B, which includes unique characters such as the routing
number, account number, and check number.
When a document printed with magnetic ink is processed, it passes through a machine that uses magnetic sensors to read the
characters. The sensors detect the magnetic field created by the ink and convert it into electrical signals, which are then
processed and interpreted by a computer system.
MICR technology is widely used in the banking and financial industries because it provides a secure and efficient way to
process large volumes of checks and other financial documents. It also helps prevent fraud by making it more difficult to alter or
counterfeit checks.

Digitizers - A digitizer is an input device that is used to capture or measure physical data, such as the position or movement of a
pen or stylus. Digitizers are commonly used in graphic design or engineering applications to create precise drawings or
diagrams.
Examples of Digitizers-
•Graphics tablets: These are input devices that allow users to draw or write directly onto a digital surface using a stylus or pen.
Examples include the Wacom Intuos Pro and the Huion H610 Pro V2.
•Optical digitizers: These devices use a camera or other optical sensor to capture the position and movement of a pen or stylus.
Examples include the Leap Motion Controller and the Microsoft Surface Dial.
•3D digitizers: These devices are used to capture the shape and geometry of physical objects in three dimensions. Examples
include the Artec Eva and the FARO ScanArm.
Plotters - A plotter is an output device that is used to produce large-scale drawings or designs. Plotters use pens or markers to
draw on paper, and are commonly used in engineering, architecture, or graphic design applications.
Types of Plotters-
•Pen plotters: These plotters use pens or markers to draw on paper, and are commonly used for technical drawings and
architectural plans. Examples include the HP DesignJet T120 and the Roland DXY-1150A.
•Vinyl cutters: These plotters are used to cut vinyl material into shapes or designs for signs, decals, and other graphics.
Examples include the Silhouette Cameo 4 and the USCutter MH Series.
•Laser cutters: These plotters use lasers to cut or engrave designs onto various materials such as wood, metal, or plastic.
Examples include the Glowforge Pro and the Epilog Zing 16.

Each of these devices has its own unique features and applications, and can be used in combination with other devices
to create a complete input/output system. For example, a scanner can be used to capture a physical drawing or design, which
can then be edited using a computer and a digitizer. The digitized design can then be output to a plotter to create a large-scale
printout.
Number System-
Number systems are a way of representing numerical values using symbols or digits. The most common number system used
today is the decimal system, which uses ten digits (0-9) to represent all possible values. However, there are other number
systems as well, including: binary (base 2), octal (base 8), and hexadecimal (base 16).
Non-positional number system: A non-positional number system is a number system in which the value of each digit does not
depend on its position within the number. An example of a non-positional number system is the Roman numeral system, where
the value of each symbol depends on its identity, not its position. For example, the Roman numeral for 10 is X, and it represents
10 regardless of its position within a larger number.
Positional number system: A positional number system is a number system in which the value of a digit depends on its position
within the number. The most common example of a positional number system is the decimal number system, where the position
of each digit determines its value relative to the base of 10. For example, in the number 567, the digit 5 represents 500 because
it is in the hundreds position, the digit 6 represents 60 because it is in the tens position, and the digit 7 represents 7 because it is
in the ones position.
Types of Positional Number System-
1. Decimal number system: This is the most common number system used in everyday life. It has 10 digits, 0-9, and uses a
positional notation system, where each digit's position represents a different power of 10. For example, the number 1234 in
decimal notation represents (1 x 1000) + (2 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (4 x 1).
2.Binary system: The binary system uses only two digits (0 and 1) to represent all values. Each digit in a binary number
represents a power of 2, with the rightmost digit representing 2^0, the next digit representing 2^1, and so on.
In the binary system, there are only two possible digits: 0 and 1. All values are represented using combinations of these two
digits. Here are some examples of binary numbers:
1.10101 - This is a binary number that represents the decimal value 21. It is calculated as follows: 1x2^4 + 0x2^3 + 1x2^2 +
0x2^1 + 1x2^0 = 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 21.
2.11010 - This is a binary number that represents the decimal value 26. It is calculated as follows: 1x2^4 + 1x2^3 + 0x2^2 +
1x2^1 + 0x2^0 = 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 26.
3. 11100010 - This is a binary number that represents the decimal value 226. It is calculated as follows: 1x2^7 + 1x2^6 +
1x2^5 + 0x2^4 + 0x2^3 + 0x2^2 + 1x2^1 + 0x2^0 = 128 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 226.

Decimal to Binary conversion-

we want to convert the decimal number 27 to binary.
1.Divide 27 by 2, and write down the quotient and remainder:
1. 27 divided by 2 equals 13 with a remainder of 1
2.Divide the quotient (13) by 2, and write down the quotient and remainder:
1. 13 divided by 2 equals 6 with a remainder of 1
3.Repeat step 2 with the new quotient (6):
1. 6 divided by 2 equals 3 with a remainder of 0
4.Repeat step 2 with the new quotient (3):
1. 3 divided by 2 equals 1 with a remainder of 1
5.Repeat step 2 with the new quotient (1):
1. 1 divided by 2 equals 0 with a remainder of 1
6.Write the remainders in reverse order to get the binary equivalent:
1. 27 in binary is 11011
So, the decimal number 27 is equivalent to the binary number 11011.
Octal system: The octal system uses eight digits (0-7) to represent all values. Each digit in an octal number represents a power
of 8, with the rightmost digit representing 8^0, the next digit representing 8^1, and so on.
Examples-
1.12 - This is an octal number that represents the decimal value 10. It is calculated as follows: 1x8^1 + 2x8^0 = 8 + 2 = 10.
2.76 - This is an octal number that represents the decimal value 62. It is calculated as follows: 7x8^1 + 6x8^0 = 56 + 6 = 62.
3.543 - This is an octal number that represents the decimal value 355. It is calculated as follows: 5x8^2 + 4x8^1 + 3x8^0 = 320
+ 32 + 3 = 355.

Decimal to Octal Conversion-

Let's say we want to convert the decimal number 173 to octal.
4.Divide 173 by 8, and write down the quotient and remainder:
1. 173 divided by 8 equals 21 with a remainder of 5
5.Divide the quotient (21) by 8, and write down the quotient and remainder:
1. 21 divided by 8 equals 2 with a remainder of 5
6.Repeat step 2 with the new quotient (2):
1. 2 divided by 8 equals 0 with a remainder of 2
7.Write the remainders in reverse order to get the octal equivalent:
1. 173 in octal is 255
So, the decimal number 173 is equivalent to the octal number 255.
3. Hexadecimal system: The hexadecimal system uses sixteen digits (0-9 and A-F) to represent all values. Each digit in a
hexadecimal number represents a power of 16, with the rightmost digit representing 16^0, the next digit representing 16^1, and
so on.
1.3F - This is a hexadecimal number that represents the decimal value 63. It is calculated as follows: 3x16^1 + Fx16^0 = 48 +
15 = 63.
2. AB - This is a hexadecimal number that represents the decimal value 171. It is calculated as follows: Ax16^1 + Bx16^0 =
160 + 11 = 171.
3. FFF - This is a hexadecimal number that represents the decimal value 4095. It is calculated as follows: Fx16^2 + Fx16^1 +
Fx16^0 = 3840 + 240 + 15 = 4095.

Decimal to hex Conversion-

Let's say we want to convert the decimal number 418 to hexadecimal.

2.Divide 418 by 16, and write down the quotient and remainder:
1. 418 divided by 16 equals 26 with a remainder of 2
3.Divide the quotient (26) by 16, and write down the quotient and remainder:
1. 26 divided by 16 equals 1 with a remainder of 10 (which is represented as A in hexadecimal)
4.Repeat step 2 with the new quotient (1):
1. 1 divided by 16 equals 0 with a remainder of 1
5.Write the remainders in reverse order, and use letters A through F to represent values greater than 9:
1. 418 in hexadecimal is 1A2
Types of Computer-
Classification According to purpose-
1.General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide range of computing tasks and can be used for various applications.
They are flexible and can run different types of software, making them suitable for personal and business use.
2.specific-purpose computers are designed for a particular application or task. They are optimized to perform specific functions
and may not be suitable for other tasks. Examples of specific-purpose computers include cash registers, ATMs, and medical
equipment.
In general, general-purpose computers are more versatile and can be used for a wide range of tasks, while specific-
purpose computers are designed to perform a single task or a limited set of tasks with high efficiency and reliability.

Classification According to functionality-

1. Analog Computer-Analog computers work with continuous physical quantities such as voltage, current, and frequency. They
use analog circuits and devices to perform mathematical calculations, and they are often used for scientific and engineering
applications that require precise calculations of physical quantities. Examples of analog computers include voltage meters,
speedometers, and accelerometers.
Features –
•Work with continuous physical quantities, allowing for precise measurements and calculations.
•High accuracy and reliability for mathematical calculations and simulations.
•Can handle complex equations and nonlinear functions.
•Benefits:
•Ideal for scientific and engineering applications that require precise calculations of physical quantities.
•Faster and more efficient than digital computers for certain types of calculations.
•Can be simpler and more cost-effective than digital computers for some applications.
Limitations -
•Limited accuracy due to noise and drift in analog circuits and devices.
•Limited ability to handle discrete data and digital signals.
•Limited ability to store and manipulate data, as analog devices are often designed for real-time calculations.

2. Digital computers: Digital computers work with discrete numerical values represented in binary form (0s and 1s). They use
digital circuits and devices to perform mathematical calculations, and they are used in a wide range of applications such as
personal computers, smartphones, and servers. Digital computers are known for their accuracy, speed, and ability to store and
process large amounts of data.
•Features:
• Work with discrete numerical values, allowing for fast and efficient processing and storage of data.
• Can handle a wide range of data types, including text, images, and video.
• Can perform complex logical operations and algorithms.
•Benefits:
• Widely used in personal and business applications, including communication, entertainment, and data processing.
• High accuracy and reliability for numerical calculations and data analysis.
• Can be easily programmed and reprogrammed for different tasks.

Limitations-
•Limited precision due to the finite resolution of digital numbers.
•Limited ability to handle continuous physical quantities.
•Limited ability to perform certain types of calculations, such as those involving nonlinear functions.
3.Hybrid computers: Hybrid computers combine the features of both analog and digital computers. They use analog components
for input and output, and digital components for processing and storage. Hybrid computers are used in applications that require
both numerical and physical measurements, such as weather forecasting, control systems, and scientific simulations.
•Features:
• Combine the features of analog and digital computers, allowing for both physical measurements and numerical
calculations.
• Can handle complex equations and nonlinear functions, as well as logic and data processing.
• Can be optimized for specific applications and tasks.
•Benefits:
• Ideal for applications that require both physical and numerical measurements, such as scientific simulations and control
systems.
• Can provide faster and more efficient calculations than analog computers, while also allowing for physical
measurements.
• Can be more versatile and adaptable than analog or digital computers alone.
Limitations-
•Can be more complex and expensive than analog or digital computers alone.
•Can require specialized knowledge and skills to design and operate effectively.
•Can require specialized components and interfaces to connect analog and digital devices.
Classification According to Configuration-
1. Micro computer- Microcomputers are small-scale computers that are designed for personal or business use. They are also
known as personal computers (PCs) or micros. Microcomputers can be further categorized into desktop and portable computers.
Types of micro computer-
1.Desktop computers are microcomputers that are designed to be used on a desk or table. They typically consist of a computer
tower or case, a monitor, a keyboard, and a mouse. They are generally more powerful than portable computers and can handle
more demanding applications, such as gaming, graphic design, and video editing. Desktop computers also offer more
customization options, allowing users to upgrade components like the processor, graphics card, and memory.
2.Portable computers, also known as laptops or notebook computers, are microcomputers that are designed for mobility. They
are smaller and lighter than desktop computers and can be easily transported from one location to another. Portable computers
typically consist of a screen, keyboard, touchpad or trackpad, and battery. They are less powerful than desktop computers and
may not be suitable for certain applications that require high processing power or graphics capabilities. However, portable
computers are more convenient and allow users to work or access the internet from anywhere.

Features:
•Small size and low cost compared to larger computers.
•Ability to perform a wide range of tasks, from word processing and web browsing to more complex applications like gaming
and graphic design.
•High level of customization, allowing users to choose specific components and software to meet their needs.
•Wide range of connectivity options, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, USB, and HDMI.
•Easy to use interface with a graphical user interface (GUI) and intuitive software.
Benefits:
•Affordable and accessible for personal and business use.
•Can improve productivity and efficiency through software applications and automation.
•Offer convenience and portability, allowing users to work or access the internet from anywhere.
•Allow for easy communication and collaboration through email, instant messaging, and video conferencing.
•Can provide entertainment through games, multimedia content, and streaming services.

2.Mainframe Computer -Mainframe computers are large, powerful, and expensive computers that are designed for handling
complex and critical business and scientific applications. They are typically used in organizations that require high levels of
reliability, security, and processing power. Here are some features, benefits, and limitations of mainframe computers:
Features:
•High processing power, memory, and storage capacity, allowing them to handle large amounts of data and complex
applications.
•Support for multiple operating systems and virtualization, enabling multiple applications to run simultaneously on the same
hardware.
•High levels of reliability and fault tolerance, with redundant components, backups, and failover mechanisms to ensure
continuous operation.
•Robust security features, including encryption, access control, and auditing, to protect sensitive data and systems.
Benefits:
•Can handle large-scale and critical applications that require high levels of processing power and reliability, such as financial
transactions, healthcare systems, and scientific research.
•Allow for efficient and cost-effective use of hardware resources through virtualization and shared access.
•Offer robust security and data protection, reducing the risk of breaches and data loss.
•Provide centralized management and control over applications, data, and resources.
Limitations:
•High cost, both in terms of hardware and software, which may limit access to large organizations.
•Limited compatibility with modern technologies and software, which may require additional investment in migration and
modernization.
•Complexity and specialized knowledge required for installation, operation, and maintenance.
•Limited scalability compared to cloud-based solutions.

3. Mini Computer-A mini computer, also known as a midrange computer, is a type of computer that is smaller and less
powerful than a mainframe computer, but more powerful than a microcomputer. Here are some features, benefits, and
limitations of mini computers:
Features:
•Larger and more powerful than microcomputers, with more processing power, memory, and storage capacity.
•Support for multi-tasking and multi-user environments, allowing multiple users to access the same system and run multiple
applications simultaneously.
•Can handle a wide range of applications, including scientific computing, business and financial operations, and database
management.
•More cost-effective than mainframe computers, making them accessible to mid-sized businesses and organizations.
•Can be customized and scaled to meet specific needs, including adding additional hardware and software.
Benefits:
•Can handle complex and critical applications, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP), supply chain management, and
scientific research.
•Support multi-user and multi-tasking environments, improving productivity and efficiency.
•Offer cost-effective solutions for mid-sized businesses and organizations.
•Provide a balance of processing power, storage, and memory capacity that meets the needs of many applications.
Limitations:
•May not be suitable for applications that require high levels of processing power, memory, and storage capacity.
•May require specialized knowledge for installation, operation, and maintenance.
•May have limited scalability compared to cloud-based solutions.
•May not be as reliable as mainframe computers.

4.Super Computer-A supercomputer is a type of computer that is designed to process very large amounts of data and perform
complex calculations at very high speeds. Here are some features, benefits, and limitations of supercomputers:
Features:
•Extremely powerful and fast, with high processing power, memory, and storage capacity.
•Typically built using customized hardware and software designed specifically for high-performance computing.
•Often used for scientific research, engineering simulations, weather forecasting, and other applications that require massive
amounts of data processing and complex calculations.
•Can perform tasks that would take a traditional computer years to complete in a matter of hours or days.
•Often used in parallel computing environments, where multiple processors work together to perform calculations.
Benefits:
•Capable of processing massive amounts of data and performing complex calculations quickly, making them ideal for scientific
research, engineering simulations, and other applications that require high-performance computing.
•Can help researchers and scientists make breakthroughs in areas such as medicine, climate modeling, and space exploration.
•Can provide cost-effective solutions for applications that require high levels of processing power, memory, and storage
capacity, compared to building large data centers.
•Can be used to model and simulate real-world situations, helping organizations prepare for emergencies and make better
decisions.
Limitations:
•Very expensive to build and operate, often costing millions of dollars.
•Require specialized knowledge and expertise to design, build, and operate.
•Limited availability, with only a few supercomputers in the world.
•Often consume a lot of power and generate a lot of heat, requiring specialized cooling and power systems.

Classification According to Speed-

1.Micro computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe computer
4.Super Computer
Classification According to memory size-
1.Micro computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe computer
4.Super Computer