College of African Wildlife

Management, Mweka

Mountain Guides Course

Mountain Ecology
 General Overview
o Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa
with ~5895 m /19340 ft a.s.l. and free
standing in the world with a base ~80 km long
~40 km wide
o Kilimanjaro is a dormant volcanic mountain in
Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
o Few natural features worldwide are as well
known as Mount Kilimanjaro (hub of
international visitors).
 General Overview Cont….
o Long rains dominates during March through
May and short rains in November through
December, while August – October are dry,
warm and clear months
o Kilimanjaro boasts three definite peaks namely
– Shira to the west ~4,045 m formed ~800,000 yrs ago
– Mawenzi to the east ~5,148 m formed ~500,000 yrs
ago
– Kibo, the highest point ~5,895 m, formed about
300,000 years ago.
Shira
Mawenzi

Kibo
 Vegetation Variation Along Mt.
Kilimanjaro
o Kilimanjaro is one of the few places on Earth
that encompasses every ecological life zone.
o These zones include tropical jungle, savannah,
desert, montane forests, and alpine
environments.
• The wealth and variety of plants on Mount
Kilimanjaro add considerably to the mountain's
interest.
 Vegetation Variation Along Mt.
o
Kilimanjaro
The key determinants for variation in
ecological life zones in terms of vegetation
physiognomies along the altitude is mainly
due to amount of rainfall received
 Rainfall with Elevation
Area/hut Rainfall Altitude (m) Vegetation zone
(mm)
Marangu 2,300 1900 Montane forest
begin
Mandara 1,300 2700 Heath moorland

Horombo 525 3700 Heath moorland

Kibo 200 4700 Alpine desert

Summit Scanty Over 5000 Bare rock & ice

rainfall
 Vegetation Zones / Belts
o Six main vegetation zones are recognized
along the altitude. Zones occupy belts of 1000
m of altitude rise as follows;
1. Woodland and bushland belt
2. Cultivated belt
3. Montane rainforest belt
4. Heath and moorland belt
5. Highland or alpine desert belt
6. The summit or arctic belt
 Biotic-Abiotic Association
o Plant life abundant in areas of high
temperature and rainfall
o Plant diversity decreases with increase in
altitude due to colder & drier conditions
o Animals diversity also decreases with altitude
o Thus there is a strong association between
altitude, rainfall, temperature and plants &
animals
 1. Woodland and bushland
• Altitude 800 – 900
m (3000 ft)
• Bushland
dominated by harsh
conditions
• Covered with scrub
& lowland forest
• Characterized by
mosaic of Acacia
spp thorn bushland,
Cactus spp.
1. Woodland and bushland Cont…
o Most of the area is dry most of the time it is an
arid area, the belt is susceptible to fire.
o Arid plants have developed three main adaptive
strategies:
• Succulence: store a big amount of water e.g.
Euphorbia spp
• Drought tolerance: shade all leave appear dead
e.g. Acacia spp
• Drought avoidance: quickly grow produce
flowers and seeds then die e.g. herbaceous plants
 2. Cultivated Belt
o The cultivated belt constitutes the
replacement of the lower part of the montane
forest belt.
o Cultivated land between 900 – 1800 m Chagga
grow cash crops & food crops.
o Zone dominated by intensive cropping system
of Chagga tribe involving integration of several
multi-purpose trees & shrubs with food & cash
crops plus livestock on the same unit of land.
 2. Cultivated Belt Cont..
o Chagga home gardens maintain not only a
high biodiversity, they are an old and very
sustainable way of land use that meets several
different demands. Beside crop production,
the sparse tree layer provides people with
firewood, fodder and timber.
 Vertical Stratification of Chagga
Gardens
o Vertical zonation canopy depth:-
– 0-1 m consist food crop e.g. beans, fodder &
grasses
– 1-2.5 m mainly coffee, fence young tree,
shrubs, & medicinal plants
– 2.5 – 5 m banana plant canopy layer
– 5-15 m layer for fuel, woods and fodder from
tree
– 15-30 m Valuable timber trees for building,
 Flora in Cultivated Zone
o Farmers practice intercropping and agro-
forestry farms
o Some of the food crop grown in home gardens
include: Banana, beans, cabbage, cow pea,
maize, onion, potato, sweet potato, tomato,
and yam
o The cash crop is coffee.
o Plants include Musesewe Rauvolfia caffra,
Caesalpinia decapetala, Ficus spp.Grevillea
robusta, Carica papaya, Psidium guajava
Albizia spp. Croton macrostachys etc.
 3. Montane Forest Belt
o Thick belt between 1800/1900 and 3000 m wet,
high humidity & muddy area
o 96% of water on Kilimanjaro originates from
montane
o The zone is characterized by;
• Thick tree canopy & stratified into layer mostly
foggy & misty permanently damp mulch due heavy
rains
• High diversity of fauna & flora, evergreen vegetation
• Posses thick soil & dead organic matter
 3. Montane Forest Belt Cont…
• Most of the rare and endemic flora of
Tanzania are found in the moist montane
forests.
 Variation of Montane Forest
o Lower boundaries 1700 m southern & 2200 m
northern side
o Upper boundary is located about 3000 m on
the southern & 2800 western and northern
sides.
o The Southern receives more rain from the
Indian ocean compared to northern side.
 Elevation or altitudinal
o Montane forest varies with elevation. Decline
in species, the northern side in general its
lower region contains large numbers of cedar
Juniperus procera which is absent in the
southern side
o Commonly seen herb, Impatiens kilimanjari
etc
o Bryophytes located on the southern zone only
 Flora of Montane Forest
o The montane forest of Kilimanjaro contains over
1200 vascular plant species cover up 3,000 m –
Ocotea forest on the wet southern part while
Juniperus and Cassipourea grow on dry northern
slope.
o Some examples of the plants Macaranga
kilimandcharica, Podocarpus milanjianus, Ocotea
spp. Nuxia congesta, Juniperus procera. Ficus spp.
o Ferns trees can be found in the montane forest, the
upper margin of montane forest is dominated by
Hagenia abssyinica.
o Climbers like Begonia spp. are common in the
montane forest
 Montane Forest Plants
Adaptations
o Broad leaved plants to get rid of too much water
due to heavy rain
o Tall trees to sunlight
o Need buttress to anchor themselves
o Epiphytes grow on other tree
o Climbers, lianas use other tree to reach sunlight
o Lack thorn and other physical defense mechanism
o Stranglers are common Ficus spp
Scadoxus multiflorus
Impatiens spp.
 Begonia spp
Montane
tree with
epiphytes &
lianes/climb
ers
Oxalis latifolia
Cyanthea manniana (tree fern)
 Heath and moorland
• Subalpine is dominated by the Erica forest up to 4,100 m
and represent the highest elevation of cloud forests in
Africa.
• Altitude 2800 – 4000 rain fall range 1300 – 530 mm
• Divided into two lower altitude 2800 – 3500 m
• Upper heather moorland 3500 – 4000 m.

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 Vegetation
• Dominant heaths Erica aborea,
Philippia excelsea, Protea
kilimandscharica, Hagenia
abyssinica.
• Damp area dominated by
forest groundsel Senecio and
Lobelia spp.
• Tussock common Festuca spp.
Koeleria spp. Kikuyu grass

•Erica aborea
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•Adaptations e.g. Erica spp
•Leaf surface area drastically reduced compared to
montane forest plants
•Flowers pollinated by wind since insect at the high
altitude are few since are cold blooded
•The plant will form a rhizome (underground stems an
adaptation for both coldness & fire that are quite
common

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 The Giant groundsel of the heath & Moorland

•Lobelia spp. •An

inflorescen
ce of
Scenecio
spp.

•Forest of
Scenecio spp. •Forest of Scenecio
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 •Proteus spp. •Tussock grass
•Hyepricum
revolutum

•Leonotis
•Ipomoea wightii nepetifolia
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 •Helichrysum
meyeri-johannis
•Helichrysum
formosissimum

•Helichrysum
newii

Everlasting flowers petals

modified into polythene like
04/02/24 material to avoid ice burn
 •Representative
of plant that
form bulbs like
onion – food for
alpine fauna

•Dierama •Gladiolus natalensis

cupiflorum

•Knophofia
thomsonii
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 Small plants concentrate on the
southern zone
• Lichens are found in all vegetation belts of
heather and montane forest. Also found in the
mossy montane forest 2400 and 3100
including the old man’s beard can be used to
tell direction.

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 Plants of heather adaptation
• Grow in colony and tussocks due to
coldness.
• Flowers petals are polythene like e.g.
everlasting Helichrysum spp.
• Antifreeze strategy Lobelia spp
• Bulb & rhizome formation to
some plants Knophofia thomsonii
• Reduction of leaf surface area.

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 Fauna adaptation

• Small mammals burrowing and hiding in

crevices e.g. Four Striped field Mouse
• Alpine chat fluffy the feather and look like a
tennis ball
• Mountain animals tend to have thicker coat.

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 Alpine desert

• Altitude 4000 – 5000 m

• Dominated by harsh dry alpine zone
• There is daily up rooting and planting
• There a few species compared with lower
altitude.

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 Adaptation

• The rare spiders spent cold nights in crevices

• The birds and animals are on transit, some being
scavengers for food, e.g Raven
• Buffaloes and eland visit for salt licks example the
zebra rocks although not established if are used by
animals.
• Area is devoid of life.

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 Adaptation for plants

• Very scanty plants are found in the area

• Majority are ephemeral (short lived) grow
very quickly, give seeds and then die.
• They are very short in height

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 •North more drier
than south.

•Lobelia spp.

•Helichrysum spp.

•Helichry
sum spp.

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 The summit or arctic zone begins at
5000 – up summit.
• Oxygen is reduced to half
• Plants are stunted lichens and one everlasting
H. newii
• Insect adaptation is bury in rock crevice

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 Major problems of Kilimanajro
• Wildfire both in the montane and heath has declined
drastically
• Littering in the environment is a big problem its
addressed by Trash In Trash Out (TITO) principle, Park
employed labourors to collect litter.
• Illegal and secretive logging of camphor wood has also
declined after inclusion of the montane forest in the
Park
• Subsistence poaching of small animals e.g. Galago and
tree hyrax .

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