UNIT 1 Introduction to Public

Admnistration
 Defining Public Administration

 Woodrow Wilson:

“a detailed and systematic application of law.”

 L. D. White, “consists of all those operations having for their

purpose the fulfilment of public policy as declared by
authority.”

 Both above definitions are done from traditional viewpoint and

related only to the functions and actions of Adminstration.

-
 Meaning : broader view .
 Simon –

“the activities of the executive branches of the national, state, &

local governments.”

 Willough –
“in broadest sense denotes the work involved in the actual
conduct of governmental affairs, and in narrowest senses denotes
the operations of the administrative branch only.”

 Gullick -
“part of the science of administration which has to do with
government and thus, concerns itself primarily with the executive
 Broader . . .
 Waldo -
“ the art and science of management as applied to the affairs of
the state.”
 Marshall E. Dimock -
“concerned with ‘what’ and ‘How’ of the government. The what
is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of afield which
enables the administrator to perform his tasks. The ‘How’ is the
technique of management according to which co-operative
programmes are carried to success.”

 Conclusion :-
• Public Administration is the device used to reconcile
bureaucracy with democracy. It is a broad-ranging and
shapeless combination of theory and practice.
 Prevailing view :-
1) Administrative theory and 2) Applied administration
1. Adminstrative theory -
• It includes the following aspects.
a) Organisational Theory -
The Structure, organization, functions and methods of all types of
public authority engaged in administration, whether national,
regional or local and executive.
b) Behaviour -
The functions of adminstrative authorities and the various methods
appropriate to different types of functions. The various forms of
control of administration.
c) Public Personal Adminstration -
The problems concerning personnel e.g. recruitment, training,
promotion, retirement etc. and the problems relating to planning,
 2. Applied administration -

It includes the following aspects :-

a) Political functions - It includes the executive -
legislative relationship, administrative activities of the
cabinet, the minister and permanent official relationship.
b) Legislative function - It includes delegated legislation
and the preparatory work done by the officials in
connection with the drawing up of bills.
c) Financial functions - It includes total financial
administration from the preparation of the budget to its
execution, accounting and audit etc.
d) Defence - Functions relating to military administration.
 Applied . . .
e) Educational function - It includes functions relating to educational
administration.

f) Social welfare administration - It includes the activities of the

departments concerned with food; housing, social security and
development activities.

g) Economic Adminstration - It is concerned with the production and

encouragement of industries and agriculture.

h) Foreign administration - It includes the conduct of foreign affairs,

diplomacy, international cooperation etc.

i) Local administration - It concern with the activities of the local self-

governing institutions.
 Conclusion . . .
• Its purpose is to promote a superior understanding of
government and its relationship with the society it governs,
as well as to encourage public policies to be more
responsive to social need and to institute managerial
practices attained to effectiveness, efficiency, and the
deeper human requisites of the citizenry.
• In considering the significance of administration, it is
interesting to reflect that the importance of planning, co-
ordination and control has been recognized from very early
times. The tasks performed by modern administrators have
been carried on throughout history.
 SUMMARY

• The most fundamental public benefit in any society is the

preservation of human life, and only government is
responsible for safeguarding its citizens. When government
fails to protect its people, its relevance is reasserted by
default.
• So the point here is that, government is essential for the
creation of basic public benefits. To sum up, it may be said
that Public Administration is the non-political machinery of
the government carrying on its work for the welfare of the
people according to the laws set up by the state.
 Important characteristics of Public Administration
1. It is part of executive branch of government.
2. It is related with the activities of the state.
3. It carries out the public policies.
4. It realise the aspirations of the people as formulated and
expressed in the laws.
5. Waldo and other thinkers insist on the commitment and
dedication to the well being of the people. Otherwise Public
Administration behaves in a mechanical, impersonal and
inhuman way.
6. Public Administration is politically neutral.
 Role and Importance of Public Adminstration -

• In todays modern state and in developing countries

functions and role of Public Adminstration is very
important.
1. It is the basis of government.
2. It is the instrument of change in the society.
3. It plays vital role in the life of the people.
4. It is an instrument for executing laws, policies, programmes
of the state.
5. It is a stabilising force in the society as it provides
continuity.
6. It is instrument of national integration in the developing
countries which are facing class wars.
 Conclusion -

• The success of governement is dependent on the

ability of public administration.
• The future of civilized government rests upon the
• ability, to develop a service and philosophy and a
practice of adminstration competent to discharge
the Public functions of civilized society.
CHANGING NATURE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
 Phase I - 1887-1926 :-
• About the changing nature of Public Administration, in this phase
following changes came out -
a) Separation of Public Administration from political science
b) Public Administration is the visible side of Goverment.
c) Woodrow Wilson has given definition, nature, role and importance of
Public Administration.
d) L. D. White has written the first textbook on the subject i.e.
‘Introduction to the study of Public Administration.’

• It may be seen that the dominant feature of the first period

was a passionate belief in politics - administration
dichotomy.
 Phase II - 1927-1937 :

In the changing nature of public Administration this period can be

called as principles of Administration and established the
discipline of Public Administration as an independent science.

• In 1927, W.F. Willough has written a book “Principles of Public

Administration.” The title of the book indicates the new thrust in
thinking and established the subject as an independent science.

• This period witnessed publication of a number of important works on

this subject. The more important among them are -
1. Mary Parker Folleft’s “Creative Experience”
2. Henri Fayol’s “Industrial and General Mangement.”
3. Mooney’s “Principles of Organisation”.
4. Luther Gulick “Science of Administration.”
 Phase two . . .
• Gulick explained the principles of administration. These are
seven principles known as POSDCORB.
• Thus in this period subject acquired -
1) The Status of separate subject of social science
2) Secondly. It was considered, as the science of
administration.
3) Developed the principles of administration and theories.
These theories and principles were in great demand both in
government and business
 Phase III - 1938-1947 :-

• This period brought new changes in the nature of

Public Administration
1. Some thinkers refuted politics administration
dichotomy.
2. They challenged the claim of Public Administration
as a science.
3. Emphasised the environmental effects on
adminstrative behaviour.
 Phase IV - 1948 to 1970
• Because pre 1947 viewpoint upheld the politics -
administration
dichotomy and the post 1947 view point advocated their fusion.
• Pfiffner stated that politics and administration are so
intermingled
and confused that a clear distinction is difficult.
• Kingsley saw Adminstration as a branch of Politics.
• Paul Appleby upheld the fusion view, He said at higher levels
administration is more generalised, takes on a greater political
character and has a total governmental significance. At lower
levels, it is less political and more particularistic.
• 1) Waldo in his Administrative State (1948) Widened the
orientation of Public Administration to include policy issues
• On the other hand, many political scientists began to argue that the
true objective of Public Administration was “intellectualized
understanding” of the executive.
There was also a talk of continued ‘dominion of political science over
Public Administration.’
• In Short, this period witnessed the spectacle of Political - Science
not only letting Public Administration separate itself from it, but also
not fostering and encouraging its growth and development within its
own field.
• Therefore, in the post world war II period, the credentials of Public
Administration to being a science and a distinct discipline and apart
from political, - Science were questioned.
This led to the twin development of Public Administration being viewed
as political science an also as an Administration science.
 Fifth Phase 1971 onwards

• In this period Public Administration registered great

progress and enriched vision.
1. Focus on the dynamics of adminstration.
2. It is considered as inter-disciplinary.
3. Talk of New Public Administration
4. New trends emerged – in the subject of Public
Administration i.e.
i) Comparative Administration
ii) Development Administration
iii) Market orientation - State and Market
 Fifth . . .
1. Focus on the dynamics of administration -
• It is focusing its attention on the dynamics of
administration.
• It is also drawing heavily on the management
sciences.
2. It is considered as inter-disciplinary- Public
Administration has attracted within its fold scholars
from various disciplines and thus is becoming inter-
disciplinery in its nature.
 Public and Private Administration
Differences
High prestige and Social status: In comparison to private
administration, public administration enjoys high degree of
status and prestige. It is because of the supreme power lies on
the governmental machinery. Public Administration rendering
more service to the public than private organization.

Subjected to Political direction: Public Administration is

subjected to political orientation and direction as under the
policies the bureaucrats implement the policy whereas the
private administration does not have any political direction.
The ends the private administration follows are of its own
decision and choice.
 Difference . . .
• Service oriented and Profit motive: The principal feature of
public Administration is service oriented and profit motive.
Its objective is to rendered service to the public and
stimulate community welfar. The Private administration on
the other hand is characterized by profit motive or profit
making organization, but not social service organization. Its
main objective is to maximize profit.
• the principle of uniformity: According to this principle
there is no concept like favour and disfavor. The private
administration need not worry about the uniformity in
treatment.
 Difference . . .
• Establishing Public Relation: The Public and Private Administration
also differs on the ground of establishing their public relation. It is
the public organization who gives more importance to the people
rather than the business or private organization. But the business or
private organizations gives more importance on business which is
more profit motive in nature.
• The matters of Efficiencies and effectiveness: In the matters of
efficiency, the private organizations are much superior then the
public. In private organization efficiency is measured in terms of
resources they use. Efficiency of the employees is calculated as
“profit earning” in the organizations. But if one takes profit as the
indicator in the public organization, it will be a narrow view of the
role of this sector. Effectiveness refers to the successful achievement
of specific goals. For example in the emergency situations the
government, rather calculating the costs of operation to reduce
expenditure, tries to relief rather than minimum cost weighs.
 Differences …
• The nature of Monopoly :The Public Administration is generally
monopolistic by its nature. It does not give enough scope to the
private parties to compete with it. The governmental
organizations are not allowed to run by the individual or a group
of individuals but run by the government itself. This is not in case
of private administration. They are free to compete without any
restrictions with other private organizations.
• The matter of Public Responsibility: Public responsibility is one
of the important pillar of Public Administration. Because the
public is the main source of administration. So public scrutiny,
accountability and transparency are the important characteristics
of Public Administration. It has also faces the criticism from the
public, the press and from the political parties. When the
question of private administration comes, it does not have any
great responsibility towards the public.
 Differences . . .
• Extensive Financial control: Public Administration is
exposed to very extensive financial control. The legislature
passes the financial bill and the executive authorities
spend the money.
• Different psychological attitude : There is a great
difference in the psychological attitude between the
private and public administration. (i) Public administration
is bureaucratic, whereas private administration business
like. (ii) Public administration is political whereas private
administration is non-political. (iii) Public administration is
characterized by red-tape, whereas private administration
is free from it.
 Similarities
• Common skill and technique: Both the public and
private administration possesses various common skills
and techniques. The accounting management,
statistics, office management, stocking, purchase and
disposal are the same procedures followed by both the
administrations.
• Profound influence upon each other: In official
management and running of commercial organizations, it is
necessary to create a relationship between the
organizations as they are the parts of the society as a
whole. The traditional governmental administrations have
an influence over the modern administration. Likewise in
case of the private enterprises the big privates enterprises
 Similarities . . .
• Similarity in the principle of administrative set up :The
principles such as hierarchy, span of control, unity of
command are quite same in botht he system of
administration. Both of them have some kind of structure,
working specification, specialized duties and responsibilities
etc. but in both the cases the people are the sole authority
to take decision to improve their own techniques and
procedures.
• Sufficient scope for the research and improvement
• Bothe the public and private administrations create enough
scope for improvement of the research capacity. In order to
improve the procedure and techniques both the
administrations try to their best.
 Similarities .. .
• Co-ordination and Public relation: Both public and private
administration put much emphasis on establishing
coordination, cooperation and public relations among the
masses which is very vital for the smoth running of the
administration of the country. If they fail to achieve this,
administration is bound to be a failure one. Thus, in this
regard there is a similarity between the two enterprises.
• Mutual exchange and rotation: Whatever may be the
organization I.e. public or private, mutual exchange and
rotation is the primary and fundamental principle. It is
because in every type of administration there is the division
of labour and stratification of employees from top to
bottom or vice versa. So it needs greater mutual exchange
and rotation.
 Chapter Two: Constitution and Constitutionalism

• What Is a Constitution?
• The vast majority of contemporary constitutions
describe the basic principles of the state, the
structures and processes of government and the
fundamental rights of citizens in a higher law that
cannot be unilaterally changed by an ordinary
legislative act.
• This higher law is usually referred to as a constitution.
• The content and nature of a particular constitution, as
well as how it relates to the rest of the legal and
political order, varies considerably between countries,
and there is no universal and uncontested definition
 Constitution . . .
A constitution is a set of fundamental legal-political rules that:
(1) are binding on everyone in the state, including ordinary
law making institutions;
(2) concern the structure and operation of the institutions of
government, political principles and the rights of citizens;
(3) are based on widespread public legitimacy;
(4) are harder to change than ordinary laws (e.g. a two-thirds
majority vote or a referendum is needed);
(5) as a minimum, meet the internationally recognized criteria
for a democratic system in terms of representation and
human rights.
 Functions of a Constitution

• Constitutions can declare and define the boundaries of the

political community. These boundaries can be territorial (the
geographical borders of a state, as well as its claims to any
other territory or extra-territorial rights) and personal (the
definition of citizenship). Thus, a country’s constitution often
distinguishes between those who are inside and those who
are outside the polity.
• Constitutions can declare and define the nature and
authority of the political community. They often declare the
state’s fundamental principles and assumptions, as well as
where its sovereignty lies.
 Functions . . .
• Constitutions can express the identity and values of a
national community. As nation building instruments,
Constitutions may define the national flag, anthem and
other symbols, and may make proclamations about the
values, history and identity of the nation.
• Constitutions can declare and define the rights and duties of
citizens. Most constitutions include a declaration of
fundamental rights applicable to citizens. At a minimum,
these will include the basic civil liberties that are necessary
for an open and democratic society. Many constitutions go
beyond this minimum to include social, economic and cultural
rights or the specific collective rights of minority
communities.
 Functions . . .
• Constitutions can establish and regulate the political
institutions of the community— defining the various
institutions of government; prescribing their
composition, powers and functions; and regulating the
relations between them. It is almost universal for
constitutions to establish legislative, executive and
judicial branches of government. In addition, there may
be a symbolic head of state, institutions to ensure the
integrity of the political process (such as an electoral
commission), and institutions to ensure the
accountability and transparency of those in power (such
as auditors, a court of accounts, a human rights
commission or an ombudsman).
 Functions . .
• The institutional provisions typically provide mechanisms
for the democratic allocation and peaceful transfer of
power (e.g. elections) and mechanisms for the restraint
and removal of those who abuse power or who have lost
the confidence of the people (e.g. impeachment
procedures, motions of censure).
• or sub-state communities . Many constitutions establish
federal, quasi-federal or decentralized processes for the
sharing of power between provinces, regions or other sub-
state communities. These may be geographically defined,
or they may be defined by cultural or linguistic
communities .
 Functions . . .
• Constitutions can declare the official religious identity of
the state and demarcate relationships between sacred and
secular authorities.
This is particularly important in societies where religious
and national identities are interrelated, or where religious
law has traditionally determined matters of personal status
or the arbitration of disputes between citizens.
• Constitutions can commit states to particular social,
economic or developmental goals.
• This may take the form of judicially enforceable socio-
economic rights, directive principles
• that are politically binding on the government, or other
 What Does a Constitution Typically Contain?

• Divisions: Most constitutions are divided and sub-

divided into parts that may variously be known as
titles, chapters, articles, sections, paragraphs or
clauses.
• Arrangement: Constitutions vary in the arrangement
of their provisions, although it is now usual for
principles and rights provisions to be placed in a
separate section near the beginning of the text, for
the main institutional provisions to be grouped in
the middle of the text, and for independent
institutions, miscellaneous provisions and
amendments to be placed near the end of the text.
 layout of a typical constitution
(1) Preamble: a statement of the overarching motives and
goals of the constitution-making exercise, sometimes
referring to important historical events, national identity or
values.
(2) Preliminaries: a declaration of sovereignty or of basic
principles of government; the name and territory of the state;
citizenship and franchise; state ideology, values or objectives.
(3) Fundamental rights: a list of rights, including their
applicability, enforcement, limitations, suspension or
restriction during a state of emergency.
(4) Social and economic rights or policy directives.
(5) Parliament or legislature: its structure, composition, terms
of office, privileges, procedures,etc.
 Layout . . .
6) Head of state: the method of selection, powers, terms of office.
(7) Government (in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system):
government formation rules, responsibility, powers.
(8) Judiciary: Court system, judicial appointments, judicial
independence, public prosecutors.
(9) Sub-national government: federal or devolved powers, local
government.
(10) Provisions for referendums.
(11) Institutions of the so-called integrity branch (electoral commission,
ombudsman, audit institution, etc).
(12) Security sector: commander-in-chief, any restrictions on military
power.
(13) Other miscellaneous provisions: special provisions for particular
groups, language laws, particular institution, etc.
(14) Amendment procedures, implementation timetable and
 The Constitution and the Constitutional
Order/Constitutionalism
• A constitutional order represents ‘a fundamental
commitment to the norms and procedures of the
constitution’, manifest in ‘behaviour, practice, and
internalisation of norms’(Ghai 2010).
• The constitutional order is much broader than just the
constitutional text.
• It can include customs, conventions, norms, traditions,
administrative structures, party systems and judicial
decisions that are integral to the practical workings of the
constitution.
• This deep cultural internalization of a constitutional order is very
hard to achieve (Ghai 2010).
• It is embodied, ultimately, in the political culture and in the ‘free and
civic way of life’ of a people (Viroli 2001).
 Constitutional . . .
• It is important to recognize at the outset that building a
democratic constitutional order is a long term process.
• Drafting the constitutional text is only a small part of the
challenge; it is also necessary to establish institutions,
procedures and rules for constitution-making (preparatory
stage); to give legal effect to the constitution (ratification
and adoption) and, crucially, to ensure that the spirit and
the letter of the constitution are faithfully implemented.
• Each stage of this process depends for its success on the
agreements reached at the preceding stage: a poorly
conceived drafting process is unlikely to yield a successful
text or to serve as the basis for a viable, stable and
legitimate constitutional order.
 Classification of constitutions

Constitutions can be classified in a number of different ways.

A traditional classification is into:
1) written and unwritten,
2) flexible and rigid, and
3) evolved and enacted constitutions.
• Written and unwritten constitutions
• A written constitution is contained in a single document; it is
made and enacted by a constituent assembly definite, less
flexible.
• An unwritten constitution is not contained in a single
document, but is the result of a gradual process of
constitutional evolution.
• It is never written by any assembly (the British Constitution),
 Flexible and rigid constitutions
...

• A flexible (soft) constitution is one which can be easily

amended.
• Constitutional amendments are passed in the same manner
in which an ordinary law is passed.
• The UK Constitution presents a classic example of a flexible
constitution.
• A rigid constitution is a one under which certain laws, called
constitutional laws or fundamental laws, cannot be
changed in the same manner as ordinary laws.
• The Constitution of United States of America is a rigid
constitution.
 Evolved and enacted constitutions

• An evolved constitution is one which is the result of a slow

and gradual process of evolution. Its rules and principles
draw binding force from the fact of their being recognised
as ancient, historical, time-tested and respected customs
and conventions.
• Such a constitution is a collection and continuation of
customs, usages, traditions, principles and judicial
decisions. The UK Constitution is a key example of an
evolved constitution.
• An enacted constitution is made, enacted and
adopted by a constituent assembly or council. It is
duly passed after a thorough discussion over its
objectives, principles and provisions.
 Qualities of a good constitution

1. The constitution must be systematically written.

2. It should incorporate the constitutional law of the state
and enjoy supremacy.
3. It should have the ability to develop and change in
accordance with the changes in the environment and needs
of the people.
4. It should be neither unduly rigid nor unduly flexible.
5. It must provide for the fundamental rights and freedoms of
the people.
6. It should clearly define the organisation, powers, functions
and inter-relations of the government of the state and its
three organs.
7. It must provide for the organisation of a representative,
 Qualities . . .
8. It must provide for:
(i) The Rule of Law;
(ii) The De-centralisation of powers;
(iii) An independent judiciary;
(iv) A system of local self-government;
(v) A sound method of amendment of the constitution;
(vi) Process and machinery for the conduct of free
elections.
9. The constitution must clearly reflect the sovereignty of
the people.
10. The language of the constitution should be simple,
clear and unambiguous.
 UNIT THREE: THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE
Definitions Governance
Governance refers to a process of exercise of authority to
govern people or regulate public affairs.
In the simplest terms, governance relates to the effective
management of the affairs of a country at all levels,
guaranteeing its territorial integrity, and securing the safety
and overall welfare of people.
It is about the rules of collective decision-making in settings
where there are plurality of actors or organisations and where
no formal control systems can dictate the terms of
relationship between these actors and organisations
(Chhotray & Stoker, 2009).
 Definitions . . .
Governance introduces the private sector, the civil society
including the local government system as participants in the
process of governing through changes in their subsidiary
roles and direct involvement in areas hither to kept
exclusively in the public domain.
According to Rhodes (1997), ‘governance signifies a change in
the meaning of government, referring to a new process of
governing; or a changed condition of ordered rule; or the
new method by which society is governed’.
Governance denotes the development of ways of
coordinating economic activity that transcend the limitations
of both hierarchy and markets.
It highlights the role of the State in ‘steering’ action within
complex social systems (Kooiman, 2000).
 Definitions . . .
Governance can be interpreted as the undertaking of
activities, management of resources, organisation of citizens,
communities, local government bodies, business
organisations and the branches of the State (legislature,
executive and judiciary) through social, political,
administrative, and economic arrangements that meet the
daily needs of the people and ensure sustainable
development.
Though the conventional constituents of State namely,
parliament, judiciary and executive, government may
encompass this diverse area of governance at some particular
point of time, changes often take place subsequently, that
make a combination of these constituents of the State and
other actors, as collaborative partners in governance with
• Governance is a participative system in which those who
are called upon Governance to govern on behalf of the
people are motivated with a will to give their best, serve
the people, solve their problems, and make their lives
more liveable, satisfying, and enjoyable.
 CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE: INTERPRETATIONS OF
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
• The concept of governance received added importance in
the hands of multilateral and bilateral aid-giving agencies in
the late eighties and early nineties.
• These agencies used it as a pre-condition for providing aid.
In this context, in 1989, the WB gave the lead followed by
OECD, UNDP, and the UNESCO.
 World Bank:
• first international organisation to use the term.
• WB defined it as having three distinct aspects:
a. The form of a political regime (parliamentary or
presidential, military, or civilian, and authoritarian or
democratic);
b. the processes by which authority is exercised in the
management of a country’s economic and social resources;
c. the capacity of governments to design, formulate, and
implement policies, and, in general, to discharge
governmental functions.
The terms usually describe conditions in a country.
 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

• The concept of governance denotes “the use of political

authority and exercise of control in a society in relation to
the management of its resources for social and economic
development”.
• The OECD lays down the key components of governance as
follows:
A. Legitimacy of government;
B. Accountability of political and official elements of
government;
C. Competence of governments to make policy and deliver
services; and
D. Respect for human rights and the rule of law.
 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
• UNDP (1997) has viewed governance as the exercise of
economic, political, and administrative authority to manage
a nation’s affairs at all levels.
• It is the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions
through which citizens and groups articulate their interests,
exercise their legal rights and obligations, and mediate their
differences”.
• UNDP has laid down following characteristics of good
governance viz., participation, rule of law, transparency,
responsiveness, consensus orientation, equity,
effectiveness and efficiency, accountability, and strategic
vision.
 United Nations Education and Social Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
• UNESCO (1997) defines governance as … “a process whereby citizens’
needs, and interests are articulated for the positive social and
economic development of the entire Concept of Governance society
and in the light of a perceived common good.
• Governance means more than government: it refers to a political
process that encompasses the whole society and contributes to the
making of citizens, active contributors to the social contract that
binds them together.
• Their sense of political efficacy is one of the indicators of democratic
governance.
• Governance has gained importance in the domain of public
administration by giving a new interpretation to the modes
of governing.
• It is multi-jurisdictional and creates space for several
actors.
• It gives importance to transparency, accountability,
integrity and legitimacy of the institutions, rules, practices,
and values on which the society functions.
 GOVERNANCE: CONTEXTUAL USES
Governance as the Minimal State
• In this sense, governance redefines the extent and form of
public intervention and the use of markets and quasi-
markets to deliver ‘public’ services.
• The extent of any change is a matter of dispute.
Indisputably, the size of government was reduced by
privatisation and cuts in the size of the civil service.
• However, public expenditure remained roughly constant as
a proportion of Gross Domestic Product (GDP); public
employment fell only slightly in local government and the
National Health Service; and regulation replaced ownership
as the preferred form of public intervention with the
government creating major regulatory bodies.
 Governance as Corporate Governance
• In this context, governance refers to “the system by which
organisations are directed and controlled” (Cadbury Report,
1992).
• It is the structure and the functioning of corporate policies.
It is the mechanism by which corporations and managers
are governed (Holmstrom and Kaplan, 2001).
• Thus, the governance role is not concerned with running
the business of the company, per se, but with giving overall
directions to the enterprise, with overseeing and
controlling the executive actions of management and with
satisfying legitimate expectations for accountability and
regulation by the interests beyond the corporate
boundaries…
• All companies need governing as well as managing (Tricker,
1984).
• In this use, governance has a narrow meaning, but it helps
in ensuring business flexibility, market transparency,
corporate ethics and maintaining the monitoring
standards.
• The concerns of corporate governance are echoed when
discussing accountability in the context of ‘new public
management’ and ‘good governance’.
• In this use, private sector management practice has an
important influence on the public sector.
 Governance as New Public Management (NPM)
In its third use, governance is related to the new public
management.
One of the powerful thrust areas of NPM is to shed
responsibilities in two ways, which all along has been the
concern of several governments during the 1980s.
The first is to decentralise governmental responsibilities by
privatising functions discharged by the state at all levels.
The second way is to focus on internal management practices
based on performance Governance measurement, total
quality management and the use of customer-driven
measures as methods of discerning the public interest
(Medury, op.cit.,).
 NPM . . .
• New public management implies two aspects.
• In its first, it means managerialism, i.e., introducing private
sector management methods to the public sector.
• In its second sense, it refers to new institutional economics,
i.e., introducing incentive structures (such as market
competition) into public service provision.
• Managerialism was the dominant strand in Britain before
1988 and after that new institutional economics became
more prominent.
• New Public Management is relevant to the discussion of
governance because steering is central to the analysis of
public management and it is a synonym for governance.
 NPM . . .
• Osborne and Gaebler, (1992) for example, distinguish between
‘policy decisions (steering) and service delivery (rowing)’.
• They argue that bureaucracy is a bankrupt tool for rowing.
• Hence, they proposed entrepreneurial government based on
certain principles, viz., competition between service providers,
empowering citizens, focusing on outcomes, decentralisation
of authority, catalysing all sectors, putting energies into
earning money, missions, and goals, etc.
• NPM and entrepreneurial government share a concern with
competition, markets, customers, and outcomes.
• Governance calls for more steering, providing impetus to other
forces, rather than rowing.
• The emphasis has thus been placed on ‘enabling’ rather than
‘providing’.
 Governance as ‘Good Governance’
• This use of governance became popular after the World
Bank (1992) popularised the phrase ‘good governance’,
which includes an efficient public service, independent
judicial system and legal framework and accountable
administration.
• For the World Bank, governance is ‘the exercise of political
power to manage a nation’s affairs’.
• The bank came to realise that good governance is central to
creating and sustaining an environment, which fosters
strong and equitable development, and it is an essential
complement to sound economic policies.
 GG
• It is a combination of the efficiency concerns of public management
and the accountability concerns of governance thereby enhancing
the quality of governance through empowerment, participation,
accountability, equity, and justice.
• Medury, Leftwich (1993) identifies three strands of good
governance: systemic, political, and administrative.
• The systemic use of governance is broader than government
covering the ‘distribution of both internal and external political and
economic power’.
• The political use of governance refers to ‘a state enjoying both
legitimacy and authority, derived from a democratic mandate’.
• The administrative use refers to ‘an efficient, open, accountable and
audited public service, which has the bureaucratic competence to
help, design and implement appropriate policies and manage the
public sector’.
 GG
• The good governance agenda advocates freedom of
information, a strong legal system and efficient
administration to help the underprivileged sections’ claim
to equality; but these have been most successful when
backed up by strong political mobilisation through social
movements or political parties with a clear-cut mission.
• Good governance means bringing about goodness in all the
three sectors: government, civil society and corporate
world including transnational corporations.
• Good governance is a tryst with trust, a commitment of the
people for the people, a social contract for the greatest
good, the collective conscience of the community (Mishra,
2003).
 Governance as a Socio-cybernetic System
• Governance, according to Kooiman (1993), is the pattern or
structure that emerges in a socio-political system as a
‘common’ result or outcome of the interacting intervention
efforts of all involved actors.
• This pattern cannot be reduced to one actor or group of
actors.
• It means instead of a single sovereign authority, there is a
multiplicity of actors specific to each policy area;
interdependence among social, political, and administrative
actors; shared goals; and blurred boundaries between the
public, private, and voluntary sectors (Medury, op.cit.,).
• The socio-cybernetic approach views governance as the
result of interactive social-political forms of governing.
• The approach highlights the limits to governing by a central
actor and claims there is no longer a single sovereign
authority.
• In other words, policy outcomes are not the product of
actions by central government.
• The government may pass a law but subsequently it
interacts with local government, health authorities, the
voluntary sector, the private sector and, in turn, they
interact with one another.
 Governance as Self-organising Networks
• This use sees governance as a broader term than
government with services provided by a combination of
government, the private sector, and the voluntary agencies.
• It focuses on network and collaboration driven government
rather than hierarchies.
• It lays stress on horizontal linkages among the three actors
– state, market, and civil society – in a steering society
(Joseph, 2003). For example, the British Government
creates agencies, special-purpose bodies to deliver services,
and encourages public private partnerships; so, ‘networks’
become increasingly prominent among British governing
structures.
• Networks are a widespread form of social co-ordination,
and managing inter organisational links is just as important
for private sector management as in government.
• According to Powell (1991), networks are ‘a distinctive form
of coordinating economic activity’.
• Similarly, Larson (1992) explores ‘network structures in
entrepreneurial settings; concluding that ‘the network form
of governance’ highlights ‘reputation, trust, reciprocity and
mutual interdependence’.
• In other words, a network is autonomous and self-
governing.
• Autonomous systems have a much larger degree of
freedom of self-governance.
• Deregulation, government withdrawal and steering at a
distance … are all notions of less direct government
regulation and control, which lead to more autonomy and
self-governance for social institutions (Kickert, 1993).
• From the above discussion, it becomes clear that
governance has too many meanings to be useful.
• As such, it becomes difficult to provide a single definition of
governance.
• According to Rhodes, it incorporates most notably the
minimal state, a socio-cybernetic system, and self-
organising networks
 FORMS OF GOVERNANCE
• Political:
• Due to the global political and economic shifts, the nation
states’ capacity to govern has been limited.
• There is a general feeling that there is a ‘hollowing out’ of
the State. This has resulted in shifting of the power
outwards to international financial markets, to global
companies to be able to move capital and other resources
from one site of investment to another, and to supra-
national entities such as the World Bank or European
Union.
• Power has also percolated downwards to the sub- national
level of regions and cities.
 Forms . . .
• As a result of these changes, a series of reforms have taken place
resulting in reduction in the size of the machinery of government
and its fragmentation.
• Under the new model of governance, the State is one of the
actors in the process of governance along with civil society,
NGOs, and private sector.
• New strategies based on informal influence, enabling and
regulation have grown in importance.
• The State retreats and the government withdraws from the areas
that traditionally remained in their domain.
• The State is now the ‘enabler’ rather than ‘doer’ and is being
reinvented through reducing welfare expenditure, retrenching public
services, and contracting out functions to private agencies (Singh,
2016).
• However, this does not necessarily mean a decline in the role of the
 Forms . . .
• The forms of control through hierarchical, institutional
channels continue alongside new forms of governance.
• Besides, the changing role of the State can be understood
as an adaptation to its environment rather than a
diminution of its power.
• Pierre and Peters (2000), for example, adopt an explicitly
‘State-centre’ approach which emphasises the
reconfiguration of State power.
• They view governance as a process in which the State
continues to play a leading role.
 Forms . . .
• Economic: A central theme in the governance literature is the idea that
markets, hierarchies, and networks form alternative strategies of
coordination.
• Different modes of governance, including those based on markets,
hierarchies, and network, are likely to coexist, with different institutional
combinations in specific nations, but with networks becoming Concept of
Governance increasingly significant (Newman, 2001).
• The neo-liberal political/economic regime of the 1980s and 1990s partly
dismantled the conception of the State as a direct service provider.
• The introduction of market mechanisms has led to a more fragmented
and dispersed pattern of service delivery and regulation that required
new forms of coordination.
• The states can no longer provide traditional public goods. Where the
states were once the masters of markets, now it is the markets which, on
many crucial issues, are the masters of the governments of the states
(Strange, 1996).
• As a result of privatisation, contracting out, quasi-markets, the
removal of functions from local authorities, the separation between
the policy and delivery functions in the civil service with the setting
up of executive agencies, governments had to develop new forms of
control.
• These types of control included framework documents, contracts,
targets, performance indicators, service standards, contracts, and
customer charters (Newman, op.cit.,).
• While governments could still set the parameters of action (through
funding regimes) and had the monopoly on certain forms of power
(such as legislation), they increased their dependence on a range of
bodies across the private, public, and voluntary sectors.
• Economic governance requires removal of market distortions, setting
appropriate service standards, ensuring fair competition amongst
the players and a level playing field, protecting the interests of all
concerned key stakeholders.
 Forms . . .
• Social Another form of analysis of governance is responding
to complexity, diversity, and dynamic changes in society.
Kooiman and Van Vliet (1993), link governance to the need
for an interactive form of governing.
• The purpose of governance in our societies can be described
as coping with the problems but also the opportunities of
complex, diverse, and fragmented societies.
• Complexity, dynamics, and diversity has led to a shrinking
external autonomy of the nation state combined with the
shrinking internal dominance vis-à-vis social subsystems …
• Governing in modern society is predominantly a process of
coordination and influencing social, political, and
administrative interactions, meaning that new forms of
interactive government are necessary.
 Forms . . .
• Governing in an interactive perspective is directed at the balancing
of social interests and creating the possibilities and limits of social
actors and systems to organise themselves..
• Kooiman etal (1993) argue that in a society that is increasingly
complex, dynamic, and diverse, no government is capable of
determining social development.
• Kooiman further argues that there has been an attempt by
governments – in the UK, the USA and across much of Western
Europe – to shift the focus away from the State itself to various
forms of co-production with other agencies and with citizens
themselves.
• There seems to be a shift away from more traditional patterns in
which governing was basically seen as a ‘one way traffic’ from those
governing to those governed, towards a ‘two way traffic’ model in
which aspects, qualities, problems, and opportunities of both the
governing system and the system to be governed are taken into
 Forms . . .
• In the present scenario, the government is not acting
alone.
• Rather it is increasingly engaging in co-regulation, co-
steering, co-production, cooperative management, public/
private partnerships, and other forms of governing that
cross the boundaries between government and society and
between public and private sectors (ibid).
• The tasks of steering, managing, controlling, or guiding are
carried out through a wide a range of agencies in the
public, private, and voluntary sectors, acting in conjunction
or combination
• Governance with each other. It is no longer the domain of
the government.
 Forms . . .
• Governance in this context stands for developing,
strengthening, and sustaining collaborative and
participative processes, bringing about networking
and coordination and building human capacities.
 CONCLUSION
• Governance basically focuses on the process of governing,
involving interactions between various formal and informal
institutions as well as influencing the policies and decisions that
concern public lives.
• The success of governance depends on the reinvention of the
government, re-invigoration of non-government sectors, with a
social motive.
• There is a need to have political will, normative concerns, and
organisational flexibility.
• Besides, it is imperative to pay attention to the mechanisms and
modalities followed by governments to determine public
policies and equally important, to critically examine whether
the policies are being efficiently and honestly implemented by
the government agencies and organisations responsible for
 Conclusions . . .
• It also needs to be seen whether, and to what extent, the
governments have established meaningful linkages with
various elements of civil society, which can support the
concern for good governance.
• Governance needs to be transformed to make it the key
instrument towards effective implementation of public
policies.
• This requires a multi-pronged strategy to strengthen the
capacities of all the actors involved in the governance process.
• Governance to be given a wider connotation, to bring within
its fold, not simply good government, but also other formal
and informal institutions, public-private interface, legal and
regulatory reforms, decentralisation of economic functions,
and empowerment of communities.
 Conclusions . . .
• Governance now not only occupies centre stage in the
development discourse but is also considered as the crucial
element to be incorporated in a development strategy.
• It signifies a change in the meaning of government,
referring to a new process of governing; or a changed
condition or ordered rule; or the new method by which
society is governed.
 UNIT FOUR: PUBLIC SERVICE DELIVERY AND CHANGE
MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC SECTORS
• Public Service :Public service means the activities and services done in any
government capacity in the interest of the public domain and for the benefit
of the general public. Such services include policing, defence, healthcare,
education, etc.

• Public Sector :This is a sector owned or at least controlled by the

government to provide services to the public.
• The public service in any country of the world represents the machinery of
government through which public policies are formulated and implemented.
• Public service achieves this function by converting government policies and
programs into tangible goods and services for the consumption of the
citizenry.

• Service Delivery :This refers to the extent to which the services provided by
the listed sectors meet or exceed the expectation of the beneficiaries
(general public).
 Public service . . .
• Services which are either “Public Good”, or essential
for people to fulfill their basic needs and are
generally provided by the governments (local or
national)
• Public Goods: Goods or services which are non-
excludable (no one can be denied), non-rivalrous
(consumption by one does not reduce the
availability for other, examples are public roads,
parks, clean air, police services etc.
 Citizen-administration interface

• The term 'interface' means where two systems,

organizations, or subjects meet and interact.
• In a democratic country, relations between citizens and the
administration are significant.
• The support and consent of the governed is essential for
representative government success.
• The administration has a crucial responsibility for providing
various services to citizens.
• In citizen- centric governance, citizens' concerns and
complaints are important and should not be ignored.
• There are a variety of ways in which citizens interact with
administrative agencies in their day- to-day lives.
 Interface . . .
• Mohit Bhattacharya (2006) enumerates five categories of such
interactions:
1. Clients: The client form of interaction is quite common, in which citizens
seek to obtain benefits or services from governmental agencies. For
example, a patient might visit a government hospital for a medical check-
up and treatment.
2. Regulate: As regulate, a citizen interacts with many government
agencies like police, tax agencies, licensing authorities, etc.
3. Litigants: It is quite common to see harassed citizens seeking redressal
from the courts. An example is denial of building permission, by personnel
of the local body.
4. Cutting-edge level encounters: The citizens interact more intimately at
the ground level with public agencies like municipal governments for
problems related to water, electricity, and sanitation facilities, etc.
5. Participation: In this form people become direct participants in decision
making in public agencies at different levels. Such participation is helpful
 Characteristics of Public Services

• Determination of Public Policy: The government exists to make

provisions for the welfare and security of citizens. The
government does this function through policy formulation and
implantation.
• Public policy in this regard represents the action and inaction of
the government towards the needs of citizens.
• It is the totality of government programs and strategies towards
responding to the needs of citizens. The provision of security
function, welfare services, education, healthcare, roads, water,
and sanitations were initially formulated in form of policies and
later implemented through government bureaucracy and its
agencies.
• Public policy therefore represents one of the unique attributes
of public service through which public policies are implemented
in form of service delivery to the members of the general public.
 Characteristics . . .
• Provision of Services: Public service exists to provide the
necessary service to the public at low or no cost at all. These
services are essential for the survival of the general public such as
water, electricity, healthcare service, and general protection of
lives and properties.
• One important factor in this level is the value of service provided
for the citizens. This is why value in private service is quite
different from that of the public service.
• The relationship between the service provider and the recipient
of the service is very direct in private services.
• The client has direct access to making private service accountable
for the value of service received. The moment clients discover
that the value is the service provided does not commensurate to
the amount spent, clients stop the patronage. Such accountability
in a public service is not possible.
• Clients do not directly pay for the services provided by
the government. Since most of such services are
subsidized or sometimes free (education, healthcare,
water, voters’ identity card, etc.).
• The service may be free to citizens but not to the
government. In fact, the costs of production and delivery
of services are costlier to Public Service and the
government.
• This is why the government is most likely to go into
partnership with private service in order to reduce the
cost of delivery. Since clients do not pay directly, it is
difficult to judge whether the services being provided are
worth the money being incurred by the government (out
 Consumer Preference:
• Public services are not designed to meet the desire and
preference of the client but to further the desire of policy
makers and whatever they consider as desirable for the
general public.
• Policy makers in this regard may include not only the
government but voluntary organizations and
philanthropists, among others. In the case of private
service, it is the preference of the consumer that
determines the production of goods and services (Boyne
2002:98).
 Redistribution:
• This is one of the key features of public service.
• Spicker (2009) notes that people that paid might not be the
recipient of the services. For instance, a company that sells soup to
the public is not providing a public service, but an agency that
champions the distributions of such service to the homeless
actually does.
• Redistribution is an inevitable function of public service because
the government actually allocates resources to balance the
inequality in resource distribution with a view to protecting the
poor of the poorest in the society.
• Public service does this function with the intention of engendering
even development in the country between the haves and the haves
not.
• This is a way of providing socioeconomic justice to the public.
Redistributing function can also be performed by private and
 Public Service as Trust:
• The needs of the citizens are entrusted in the government
that must be provided through public service.
• It is assumed that people may lack the capacity to make an
informed or rational decision themselves, and hence the
government must make a decision that is considered good
on behalf of its citizens.
• Some scholars called this a paternalistic role. It is
paternalistic because governments make provisions for
citizens without prior consent.
• This is done in order to prevent the consequence and risk
that could arise from the freedom of individuals to make
irrational choices or decisions.
 Functions of Public Service
• Provision of Social Services: Provision of the essential services
needed for the survival and sustenance of the general public is one of
the basic responsibilities of public service.
• There are several categories of social services that public sectors
provided for. All these were made available for public consumption
and use.
• Formulation and Implementation of Policies: For service to be
rendered to the public, it must be formulated in policy.
• Policy is the totality of government plans and strategies towards the
citizens.
• Public service becomes an essential instrumental that translates
government programs into reality for the benefit of the citizens.
• They are also instrumental in providing necessary data and
information to the government that could help in policy formulation.
• Without the instrumentality of public service, government policy
remains utopian that cannot be realized.
 Functions . . .
• Government Continuity: For democratically elected
government, there exist inbuilt mechanisms within the
constitution to change the government through the process
of election.
• When this occurs, it is the public servant that ensures the
continuity of government in order to bridge the vacuum in
government and to prevent the state of anarchy.
• The sector has the capacity to even sustain the period of
military interregnum and revolution against the civil
government (Naidu 2005).
• The overall outcome of the functions of public service as
highlighted is to deliver social services to the citizenry.
 Public Service Delivery
• Al-Ghazali (2008: 5) identified the following checklist for measuring
the capabilities of public service for effective service delivery:
• Public service should be able to demonstrate effective delivery of
goods and services at a low cost and timely manner.
• Public service should be able to demonstrate equitable distribution of
the services to the people in a fairer and transparent manner.
• Citizens should have the convictions that state institutions and public
service respect the fundamental rights of the citizens and themselves
demonstrate respect for the laws of the land.
• Public service should be wary of physical force and coercion and the
effective use of legitimate power to command submission.
• The environment should secure citizens to carry out their daily
routines without fear or hindrance.
• Finally, equal treatment and dispensation of justice for all citizens
without any bias.
 Change management in public sector
• Change management in public sector organisations refers
to the process of implementing and managing changes
within governmental agencies, departments, and other
public entities.
• It involves planning, coordinating, and guiding the
transition from existing practices to new ones, in order to
improve efficiency, service delivery, and overall
effectiveness.
• Whilst change management principles are similar across
both public and private sectors, there are some key
differences in how they are applied in public sector
organisations, because of the nature of the public sector.
 Change . . .
• STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Public sector organisations typically have a broader range of stakeholders
compared to private organisations, due to the fact they have a wider public
interest.

These stakeholders include citizens, elected officials, community groups, and

interest organisations.

Change management in the public sector emphasises the need for extensive
stakeholder engagement and consultation to ensure transparency,
accountability, and democratic decision-making.
Without extensive stakeholder engagement, you can face a whole host of
problems including:
• Lack of transparency
• Resistance
• Unforeseen challenges
• Legal issues
 Change . . .
• REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Public sector organisations operate within a framework of
legislation, policies, and regulations that guide their
operations.
Change management in the public sector must take into
account these regulatory requirements and ensure
compliance throughout the change process.
This may involve conducting legal reviews, obtaining
approvals from regulatory bodies, and adhering to public
procurement procedures.
• Without following these, they are open to legal
repercussions, operational disruptions and financial
implications and finally, damage their reputation.
 Change . . .

• POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Public sector organisations are susceptible to political
influences and the decisions of elected officials.
Change management in the public sector often necessitates
navigating political dynamics, fostering agreement among
diverse stakeholders, and overseeing the potential impact of
shifting political priorities on the suggested changes.
This introduces an additional level of complexity to the
change management process.
• This requires political sensitivity – staying informed about
the political landscape and using an evidence-based
approach to counter political pressures.
• You need to be truly flexible to political environments, that
can be unpredictable.
 Change

• PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY
Public sector organisations are accountable to the public they serve.
Change management emphasises the need for transparency, public
involvement, and effective communication throughout the change process.
Public sector organisations often have to justify the need for change,
demonstrate the expected benefits, and address concerns raised by the public.
• This is a clear difference between the private sector, which is accountable to
its shareholders, employees, customers, and other stakeholders.

• They have a responsibility to operate ethically, comply with relevant laws

and regulations, and provide accurate and transparent financial reporting.
• Private organisations may have their own governance structures, such as
boards of directors or executive committees, that ensure accountability and
oversight, but not the public.
 Change . . .
• LONG-TERM SUSTAINABILITY
Public sector organisations typically have a long-term
perspective and aim to create sustainable change.
Change management in the public sector often involves
strategic planning, capacity building, and creating a culture of
continuous improvement to ensure that changes are
embedded and sustained over time.
• There are many differences between public and private
sector change programmes, which need to be considered
to ensure its success.
• As with all change programmes strong stakeholder
engagement, clear and timely communication and
employee involvement and support are crucial.
 Public Sector Change Management Tips

1. Clearly Define Implementation Goals and

Objectives
2. Ensure Your Change Management Plan is
Comprehensive
3. Acknowledge the “Elephant in the Room”
4. Embrace and Address Unions
 UNIT FIVE: ETHICS, SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES AND
CORRUPTION IN PUBLIC SECTOR
Public Sector Ethics
• There has been considerable scientific debate on how to make
the public sector function in the best way, and in particular there
has been a debate on the role of government, of regulatory
institutions and of good governance in the developing world.

• With (great) power comes (great) responsibility, but how much

and what form of state intervention (government regulation) is
needed to achieve economic development, political
accountability, poverty eradication and other objectives?
• This debate has given a better understanding of the
responsibilities of the public sector, and how it should interact
and interface with (elected) governments, with citizens, civil
society and foreign as well as domestic corporations and private
 Pub sec. . . .
• Besides, ethics and ethical principles can help people make
better decisions, and help people evaluate the decisions of
others (like public officials).
• Ethics has also been a part of this debate, in particular the
discussion on professional ethics of civil servants, and to a
lesser extent the professional and personal ethics of
politicians and elected office holders.
• Ethics has long been a controversial area of study in the
professions of law, politics, philosophy, theology and public
administration, and other study areas.
 Pub sec. . . .
• Some practitioners, however, will dismiss any study or theory
of ethics as not pertinent to their work, preferring instead to
rely on laws, personnel manuals and job descriptions to
define the limits of public sector responsibilities.
• That view now seems to be losing ground to the viewpoint
that public administrators are no longer, if they ever were,
expert technicians simply implementing the policy decisions
of the policy makers.
• Rather, public administrators exercise substantial discretion
(decision-making power) on their own, discretion that affects
peoples’ lives in direct, lasting, and sometimes profound
ways.
• In addition, there can be reasons to question the legitimacy
of the rules and the policy decisions that public
 Pub. sec . . .
• Administrators and bureaucrats cannot avoid making
decisions, and in doing so they should attempt to make
ethical decisions.
• Administrators have discretionary powers that go beyond
the manuals, orders, job descriptions and legal framework of
their position and duties, and professional ethics will have to
come in as guidelines, in addition to the formal regulations.
• Administrators should therefore seek a broad and solid
understanding of ethical theories and traditions, and look for
methods for thinking about the ethical dimensions of their
decision-making.
• Much the same can be said of politics. Politics is even lesser
regulated than the public administration (constitutions and
“the people” are the regulators of politicians, with less
 What is Ethics?
• Ethics refers to principles by which to evaluate behaviour as
right or wrong, good or bad. Ethics refers to well based
standards of right and wrong, and prescribe what humans
ought to do.
• Ethics are continuous efforts of striving to ensure that
people, and the institutions they shape, live up to the
standards that are reasonable and solidly based.
• It is useful to distinguish between normative and
descriptive ethics; normative ethics describes the standards
for the rightness and wrongness of acts, whereas
descriptive ethics is an empirical investigation of people’s
moral beliefs.
 Moral Philosophy
• Traditionally, moral philosophy (also known as normative
ethics and moral theory) is the study of what makes actions
right and wrong.
• These theories offer an overarching moral principle to
which one could appeal in resolving difficult moral
decisions.
• There are several strands of ethics, which differs on the
basis (or rationale) for their various ethical considerations.
• The three best known normative theories are virtue ethics,
consequentialism (in particular utilitarianism) and
deontological ethics (and in particular Kantianism).
 Virtue Ethics

• Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the agent rather

than on the formal rules for or the consequences of
actions.
• The key elements of virtue ethical thinking are based on the
approaches to ethical thinking of the ancient and medieval
periods.
• The roots of the Western tradition lie in the work of Plato
and Aristotle, but virtues are important also in traditions of
Chinese moral philosophy.
• Virtue theory returned to prominence in Western
philosophical thought in the twentieth century, and is today
one of the three dominant approaches to normative
theories.
 Virtue . . .
• Virtue ethics includes an account of the purpose of human
life, or the meaning of life.
• To Plato and Aristotle, the purpose was to live in harmony
with others, and the four Cardinal Virtues were defined as
prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance.
• The Greek idea of the virtues was later incorporated into
Christian moral theology. Proponents of virtue theory
sometimes argue that a central feature of a virtue is that it
is universally applicable.
 Consequentialism
• Consequentialism refers to those moral theories, which
hold that the consequences of a particular action form the
basis for any valid moral judgment about that action.
• Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right
action is one that produces a good outcome, or
consequence.
• Utilitarianism is a specific strand of consequentialist ethics.
Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action
is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility,
that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed
up among all persons.
 Consequentialism . . .
• The more happiness or pleasure for the more people, the better.
It is consequentialist because the moral worth of an action is
determined by its outcome, and that the ends justify the means.
• Utilitarianism can also be characterized as a quantitative and
reductionist approach to ethics. Utility – the good to be
maximized – has been defined by various thinkers as happiness
or pleasure (versus sadness or pain).
• It has also been defined as the satisfaction of preferences. It
may be described as a life stance with happiness or pleasure as
ultimate importance.
• In general use of the term utilitarian often refers to a somewhat
narrow economic or pragmatic viewpoint. However,
philosophical utilitarianism is much broader than this; for
example, some approaches to utilitarianism also consider non-
humans (animals and plants) in addition to people.
 Deontological Ethics
• Deontological ethics has also been called “duty” or “obligation” based
ethics.
• Deontologists believe that ethical rules “bind you to your duty”, and
they look at the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as
opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those
actions.
• Deontological ethics looks at our fidelity to principle and disregards
the consequences of a particular act, when determining its moral
worth.
• Kantianism (or Kantian ethical theory) is deontological, revolving
entirely around duty rather than emotional feelings or end goals.
• The core concept is “duty”, or what one ought to do in certain
situations.
• Kantianism states that truly moral or ethical acts are not based on
self-interest or the greatest utility, but on a sense of “duty” and a
sense of what is right and fair on a wider level (despite the possible
 Deontological . . .
• Kantian theories are based on the work of the German
philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804), to whom the
“categorical imperative” is a core element. Kant thought that
human beings occupy a special place in the world, and that
morality can be summed up in one, ultimate commandment of
reason, or imperative, from which all duties and obligations
derive.
• A categorical imperative denotes an absolute, unconditional
requirement that exerts its authority in all circumstances, both
required and justified as an end in itself.
• Kant argued against utilitarianism and other moral philosophy
of his day, because for example an utilitarian would say that
murder is OK if it does maximize good for the greatest number
of people; and he who is preoccupied with maximizing the
positive outcome for himself would see murder as OK, or irrelevant.
 Deontological . . .
• Kant argued, these moral systems cannot persuade moral
action or be regarded as basis for moral judgments because
they are based on subjective considerations.
• A deontological moral system was his alternative, a system
based on the demands of the categorical imperative.
• As an example of these categorical imperatives or duties,
the philosopher W.D. Ross built upon Kant's theory and
listed a few basic duties.
• One should: tell the truth; right the wrongs that one has
done to others; act justly; help others in respect to virtue,
intelligence, and happiness; improve oneself with respect
to virtue and intelligence; give thanks; and avoid injury to
others.
• In Kant’s words; “Act so as to treat others as ends and not merely as
 Modern Moral Philosophy
• In the 20th century, moral theories have become more
complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness
and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds
of moral status.
• W.D. Ross for instance, argues that moral theories cannot
say in general whether an action is right or wrong, but only
whether it tends to be right or wrong according to a certain
kind of moral duty such as beneficence, fidelity, or justice.
• Other philosophers have questioned whether these
principles or duties can be articulated at all at a theoretical
level; some have moved away from the theories and
principles of normative ethics towards descriptive morality
and meta-ethics.
 Modern . . .
• Other philosophers are still defending moral theory on the grounds
that it need not be perfect in order to capture important moral
insight.
• Modern moral philosophy is increasingly revolving around claims-
based or rights-based ethics, which are ethical theories based on the
fundamental principle of human rights and other rights or claims of
the individual.
• Rights-based theories argue that people have a claim to certain
freedoms and rights, like liberal theories which focus on people’s
claim to freedoms like the freedom of speech, association, religion,
etc.
• These modern theories are focussing on people’s claim to rights like
human rights, civil rights, political rights and social/economic rights.
• One example is the UDHR of the United Nations. Another example of
rights-based theories is “welfareism”, which argues that people have
a claim to a welfare state that can provide them with security, basic
health services, education, jobs, housing, etc.
 Modern . . .

• An important characteristic of claims-based ethics is that it

implies that people have claims against somebody, and that
this somebody consequently has some obligations.
• In other words, a person can only be said to have a
meaningful claim to something (a service, freedom, or
right) if others have an obligation not to act in ways that
undermine the welfare, freedom or rights of anybody (the
negative obligation – not to hurt others), and if others have
an obligation to act positively to secure that certain
peoples’ rightful claims are met (the positive obligation – to
provide what others can rightfully claim, for instance the
welfare rights that impose on the state the duty to assist
those who cannot provide for themselves).
 Modern . . .
• Thus, for a person to have a legitimate and meaningful claim to something,
others must face a corresponding obligation.
• Somebody’s ethical rights or rightful claims therefore give other people
ethical obligations or rightful duties and responsibilities.
• Rights are ultimately claims against others, and rights-claims generate
correlative duties on the part of others.
• These others can be individuals, other members of society, various groups
and usually – and increasingly so – the state.
• There are four basic divisions of rights. Natural rights pertain to everybody
by virtue of being a human being.
• Natural rights apply to all persons, like our right to life. Other people,
organisations, governments and the international community has all a duty
to secure everybody’s natural rights.
• Conventional rights (or legal rights) generally apply within the context of
social and political organizations.
• Conventional rights apply to all members of a group, like all citizens of a
state which has constitutionally granted citizen rights, like for instance the
 Why Public Sector Ethics?
• The “others” that are the carriers of the duties and
obligations to provide us with our legal and moral rights,
freedoms and welfare are usually understood as the state
or the public sector.
• The state is not only in the ethical theory of positive and
conventional rights the foremost provider of rights and
welfare, but the state is also the main provider of rights as
understood by most people and in most circumstances.
• In other words, negative duties are an obligation for
everybody, whereas positive obligations are the duty of
some particular group or institution, usually the state.
 Pub. . . .
• The public sector is composed of two core elements; at the
political level there are the political institutions where
policies are formulated and the (major) decisions are made,
and at the administrative level there is the public sector
administration, which is in charge of implementing these
policies and decisions.
• This implementing level is also called the civil service or
state administration or bureaucracy.
• The distinction between politics and administration is not
entirely clear, however, because the administration also
have quite some discretionary powers.
 pub. . . .
• Professional, public sector ethics of civil servants and
politicians are somewhat different from the personal ethics
of individuals.
• In addition to the personal ethical values and principles of
individuals (like respect for others, honesty, equality,
fairness, etc.), the professional public servant faces another
context and an additional set of values and principles.
• Although the public sector is a labyrinth of agencies with
different tasks, reporting lines, levels of responsibility and
ethical cultures, we are looking for these “universal” or
basic principles of public service.
 pub. . . .
• According to Kinchin (2007), the ethics of public service is
(should be) based on five basic virtues; fairness,
transparency, responsibility, efficiency and no conflict of
interest.
• There are, however, other principles in operation, and
public servants face several dilemmas, for instance when
the bureaucrats’ private ethics collide with his professional
public work ethics or organisational cultures.
 The “Infrastructure” of Public Sector Ethics
• The combination of ethical standard setting, legal regulation
and institutional reform has been called “the ethics
infrastructure” or “ethics regime” or “integrity system”.
• Each part is a source of public sector ethics; in other words
public sector ethics emanates from several different sources.
• These sources range from the private ethical character of the
individual public servant, via the agency-internal regulations
and culture of the agency and national legislation, to
international conventions with written standards and codes of
conduct.
• The most efficient ethics regime is when these three sources
work in the same direction, in parallel. We will look at each of
these sources of ethical conduct in the reverse order.
 Social Responsibility

• Social responsibility is the ideological notion that

organizations should not behave unethically or function
amorally, and should aim (instead) to deliberately
contribute to the welfare of society or societies –
comprised of various communities and stakeholders – that
they operate in and interact with.
• As such, the notion of social responsibility is effectively
taken to apply to all and any organizational entities,
whether a government, a corporation, and institution, or an
individual, dealing with society at large when conducting
core (commercial) activities.
 Types of corporate social responsibility

1. Environmental corporate responsibility : refers to the organization’s

commitment to sustainability and environmentally friendly
operations.
2. Ethical/human rights social responsibility : refers to a company’s
commitment to operate their business in an ethical manner that
upholds human rights principles, such as fair treatment of all
stakeholders, fair trade practices and equal pay.
3. Philanthropic corporate responsibility : refers to a corporation’s aims,
goals and objectives for actively bettering society as a whole. One huge
aspect of corporate philanthropy is donating money from company
earnings to worthy causes within the local community — often in the
form of a trust or foundation.
4. Economic corporate responsibility : refers to the practice of
making financial decisions based on a commitment to doing
good.
• Public service professionalism is defined as the overall value that
encompasses all other values that guide the public service.
• They include loyalty, neutrality, transparency, diligence, punctuality,
effectiveness, impartiality, and other values that may be specific to
the public services of individual countries.
• Public service professionalism embraces the notion that those
people who join the public service need to be inculcated with shared
values and trained in basic skills to professionally carry out their
official duties.
• Complementary to this process is a need to set up management
structures to ensure that a public service ethos and competence is
achieved.
• Public service ethics is defined as broad norms that delineate how
public servants— as agents of the state and, where applicable, as
members of an established profession such as accounting, law, etc.—
should exercise judgment and discretion in carrying out their official
• A public service committed to professionalism and ethics is
more likely to attain its goals if it has in place an “ethics
infrastructure” or its country, a “national integrity system” .
• These concepts represent, in a sense, a system of rules,
activities, and agents that provide incentives and penalties
for public officials to professionally carry out their duties
and engage in proper conduct.
• Initiatives to promote professionalism can begin simply
with the existence of sound public management systems
and practices.
• To start with, a career system based on the merit principle,
which fairly and impartially recruits and promotes public
servants, must be in place.
• This structure should be underpinned by a clear civil
service law that outlines the legal rights and
responsibilities of public servants.
• Further, well-articulated and fair human resource policies
on appropriate remuneration, training opportunities,
disciplinary procedures and the like should be
implemented and enforced. More importantly, a culture of
professionalism and pride needs to be nurtured through
the recognition of good work and correction of poor
performance.
• Initiatives promoting ethics include the addition of special
measures which focus on preventing, detecting and
reporting, investigating, prosecuting and enforcing the
appropriate laws against misconduct, ranging from
unethical to criminal acts.
• They should also focus on creating an environment
conducive to and training public servants to observe high
standards of conduct.
• In these endeavours, good example set by leadership is
essential to the credibility of the exercise.
• The public service as a profession, as it developed, espoused
the values of probity, neutrality, and fairness, among many
others.
• It has embraced the merit principle in setting up career
structures from recruitment to promotions.
• By running the administrative machinery that supports
decision-making and implements the policies and
programmes of the government-ofthe-day, public servants
play an indispensable role in the sustainable development
and governance of a nation.
• Further, as an institution, the public service ensures the
continuity of administration between transitions of power,
which are the hallmarks of modern day democracy.
• Given these crucial roles, a country expects its public service
• Experience has shown that the costs of poor performance
and corruption in the public service are too great to bear.
• This is true not only for the public service but also for the
entire public sector, political leadership, and other strata of
society.
• Financially, public officials’ diversion of funds into their own
pockets means less money for the development of nations
and peoples.
• Politically, the erosion of public confidence in and cynicism
toward government can break down fragile peace and
order in a society.
• Economically, a lack of predictable public institutions and a
sense of fair regulations will deter investment and trade.