Fundamentals of Computing

Computer Hardware and Software

ICT 1103

Mr. Isaac Wobomba Newton

Junior Security Analyst – Offensive Security (Red Team)
0787295863 / 0708776337
[email protected]
https://github.com/Wobomba 9th May 2023
 Topics
1. Definition of Computer Hardware and Software
2. Input and Output Units
3. Memory Units
4. Software and its types
5. Operating System
6. Compilers vs Interpreters
 Computer Hardware and Software
● Computer Hardware are the physical components of a computer system. These
include; printers, monitors, mouse, keyboard, central processing unit etc
● Computer Software are a set of instructions or programs that enable a computer
perform a specific task. These include; operating systems, productivity software, web
browsers, graphic design software, programming languages and development tools,
gaming software and communication software.
 Common Operations of a Computer
1. Take input
The process of entering data and instructions into the computer.
2. Store data
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and when required
3. Process data
Performing arithmetic and logical operations on data in order to convert them into useful
information.
4. Output information
The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a printed report or visual
display.
5. Control the workflow
Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.
 Computer Hardware
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link between the user and the
computer. The input devices translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.
Some of the important input devices include:
● Keyboard
● Mouse
● Joystick
● Light pen
● Scanner
● Graphic tablet
● Microphone
● Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
● Optical Character Reader (OCR)
● Barcode Reader
● Optical Mark Reader(OMR) Keyboard
 Computer Hardware
Keyboard
It is the most common input device which helps to input data to the computer. The layout
of the keyboard is like that of a traditional typewriter, although there are some additional
keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
 Computer Hardware
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
1. Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys(0-9) which generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.
2. Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
3. Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
4. Control Keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5. Special Purpose Keys
The keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab and Print Screen.
 Computer Hardware
Mouse
This is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball or infrared light at its base, which senses the movement of the
mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen but it cannot be
used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
1. Easy to use.
2. Not very expensive.
3. Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
 Computer Hardware
Joystick
This is also a pointing device, which used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The
joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of the joystick is similar to that of the mouse. It is
mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
This is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the
monitor screen, It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light
pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects
the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
 Computer Hardware
Trackball
This is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball
which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is
not moved, a trackball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a
button or a square.

Scanner
This is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is
available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on
the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
 Computer Hardware
Microphone
This is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form. The microphone is used for various applications such as
adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day. The bank’s code
number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). Its advantage is that it is fast and less
error prone.

Barcode Readers
This is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling
goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Barcode Reader scans
a barcode image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
 Computer Hardware
Central Processing Unit
It consists of the following features:
1. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
2. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
3. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program)
4. It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

It is made up of the following three components:

5. Memory or Storage Unit
6. Control Unit
7. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Computer Hardware
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of the computer
when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access
Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in the
computer.
Functions of the memory unit are:
1. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2. It stores intermediate results of processing.
3. It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4. All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory. Memory is primarily of three types
- Cache Memory
- Primary Memory/Main Memory
- Secondary Memory Cache Memory
 Computer Hardware
Cache Memory
This is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and
the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts
of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
Advantages
1. Cache memory is faster than main memory.
2. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
3. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
4. It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
5. Cache memory has limited capacity.
6. It is very expensive
 Computer Hardware
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
● Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off.
● It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
● These memories are not as fast as registers.
● The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory.

It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

 Computer Hardware
Characteristics of Main Memory
1. These are semiconductor memories.
2. It is known as the main memory.
3. Usually volatile memory.
4. Data is lost in case power is switched off.
5. It is the working memory of the computer.
6. Faster than secondary memories.
7. A computer cannot run without the primary memory
 Computer Hardware
Secondary Memory
● This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile.
● It is slower than the main memory.
● These are used for storing data/information permanently.
● CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output
routines.
● The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the
CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
 Computer Hardware
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
1. These are magnetic and optical memories.
2. It is known as the backup memory.
3. It is a non-volatile memory.
4. Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
5. It is used for storage of data in a computer.
6. Computer may run without the secondary memory.
7. Slower than primary memories.
 Computer Hardware
Random Access Memory (RAM)
This is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.
● It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine
is switched off, data is erased.
● Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
● Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
● RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers.
● RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
 Computer Hardware
RAM is of two types:
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Computer Hardware
Static RAM (SRAM)
● The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature.
● SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power
to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
● There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as
cache memory and has very fast access.
 Computer Hardware
Characteristics of Static RAM
1. Long life
2. No need to refresh
3. Faster
4. Used as cache memory
5. Large size
6. Expensive
7. High power consumption
 Computer Hardware
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
● DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second.
● DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
 Computer Hardware
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
1. Short data lifetime
2. Needs to be refreshed continuously
3. Slower as compared to SRAM
4. Used as RAM
5. Smaller in size
6. Less expensive
7. Less power consumption
 Computer Hardware
Read Only Memory (ROM)
This a type of memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
● Here memory is nonvolatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture.
● A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred
to as bootstrap.
● ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.
 Computer Hardware
Types of ROM

Masked ROM (MROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These
kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive

Programmable ROM (PROM)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
 Computer Hardware
Types of ROM

Erasable and Programmable ROM (EPROM)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is
retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultraviolet light is passed
through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultraviolet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid
is sealed with a sticker

Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
reprogramming is flexible but slow.
 Computer Hardware
Advantages of ROM
1. Non-volatile in nature
2. Cannot be accidentally changed
3. Cheaper than RAMs
4. Easy to test
5. More reliable than RAMs
6. Static and do not require refreshing
7. Contents are always known and can be verified
 Computer Hardware
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of the Control Unit
1. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
2. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
3. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
4. It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
5. It does not process or store data
 Computer Hardware
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
It consists of two sub-sections:
1. Arithmetic Section
2. Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
The function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section
The function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data
 Computer Hardware
Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer.
This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's
output into a form understandable by the users.
Some of the output devices include:
1. Monitors
2. Graphic Plotter
3. Printer Monitor
 Computer Hardware
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images
from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.
● Size − It is the diagonal size of the LCD screen. Larger the area, bigger the picture screen. A bigger picture is
preferable for movie watching and gaming. It will increase the productivity as well.
● Resolution − This is the number of pixels on the screen. For example, 24inch display is 1920x1200 (width by
length) and 22- inch display is 1680x1050. High resolution provides better picture quality and a nice gaming
experience.
● Inputs − Now-a-days monitors can accept inputs from cable as well apart from the computer. They can also
have USB ports.
● Stand − Some monitors come with adjustable stands while some may not.
● Recommended − 24 Inch LCD.
 Computer Hardware
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers
 Computer Hardware
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers

1. Very low consumable costs
2. Very noisy
3. Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
4. There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types:

5. Character printers
6. Line printers
 Computer Hardware
Non-Impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time,
thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types:

1. Laser Printers
2. InkJet Printers

Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers

3. Faster than impact printers
4. They are not noisy
5. High quality
6. Supports many fonts and different character size
 Computer Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function.
A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software:
1. System Software
2. Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end
users.
 Computer Software
Some examples of system software are Operating System, compilers, interpreter, assemblers, etc.
Features of a system software
1. Close to the system
2. Fast in speed
3. Difficult to design
4. Difficult to understand
5. Less interactive
6. Smaller in size
7. Difficult to manipulate
8. Generally written in low-level language
 Computer Software
Operating System
Operating System is the main software of the computer as everything will run on it in one form or other.
There are primarily three choices: Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.

Features of the Operating System

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer hardware.
It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and operations of the
computer.
It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the
computer, including application programs and other system software.
Computer Software
 Computer Software
Objectives of the Operating System
1. To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
2. To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
3. To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
4. To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access
and use other resources.
5. To manage the resources of a computer system
6. To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting
requests from different programs and users.
7. To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs
 Computer Software
Characteristic features of the Operating System
1. Memory Management: Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom,
what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.
2. Processor Management: Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor
when it is no longer required.
3. Device Management: Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides
which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
4. File Management: Allocates and deallocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.
5. Security: Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other similar
techniques.
 Computer Software
6. Job Accounting: Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
7. Control Over System Performance: Records delays between the request for a service and from the
system.
8. Interaction with the Operators: Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form
of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action, and informs
the operation by a display screen.
9. Error-detecting Aids: Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-
detecting methods.
10. Coordination Between Other Software and Users: Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
 Computer Software
Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All
software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a
simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of application software
1. Payroll software
2. Student record software
3. Microsoft Office
4. Inventory management software etc
 Computer Software
Features of application software are:
1. Close to the user
2. Easy to design
3. More interactive
4. Slow in speed
5. Generally written in high-level language
6. Easy to understand
7. Easy to manipulate and use
8. Bigger in size and requires large storage space
 Computer Languages
Over the years computer languages have evolved from machine languages to natural languages. Summary
of Computing Languages
1. 1940‘s -- Machine Languages
2. 1950‘s -- Symbolic Languages
3. 1960‘s -- High Level Languages

Machine Language
In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages available were machine languages. Each
computer has its own machine language which is made of streams of 0‘s and 1‘s. The instructions in
machine language must be in streams of 0‘s and 1‘s. This is also referred as binary digits.
 Computer Languages
Advantages of Machine Language
1. High speed execution
2. The computer can understood instructions immediately
3. No translation is needed.

Disadvantages of Machine Language

4. Machine dependent
5. Programming is very difficult
6. Difficult to understand
7. Difficult to write bug free programs
 Computer Languages
Symbolic Languages
● In the early 1950‘s Admiral Grace Hopper, a mathematician and naval officer, developed the concept of
a special computer program that would convert programs into machine language. These early
programming languages simply mirrored the machine languages using symbols or mnemonics to
represent the various language instructions. These languages were known as symbolic languages.
● Because a computer does not understand symbolic language it must be translated into the machine
language. A special program called an Assembler translates symbolic code into the machine language.
Hence they are called as Assembly language
 Computer Languages
Advantages of Symbolic Language
1. Easy to understand and use.
2. Easy to modify and isolate error.
3. High efficiency.
4. More control on hardware

Disadvantages of Symbolic Language

5. Machine Dependent Language.
6. Requires translator.
7. Difficult to learn and write programs.
8. Slow development time.
9. Less efficient.
 Computer Languages
Advantages of Symbolic Language
1. Easy to understand and use.
2. Easy to modify and isolate error.
3. High efficiency.
4. More control on hardware

Disadvantages of Symbolic Language

5. Machine Dependent Language.
6. Requires translator.
7. Difficult to learn and write programs.
8. Slow development time.
9. Less efficient.
 Computer Languages
High Level Languages
● The symbolic languages greatly improved programming efficiency but they still required programmers
to concentrate on the hardware that they were using.
● Working with symbolic languages was also very tedious because each machine instruction had to be
individually coded. The desire to improve programmer efficiency and to change the focus from the
computer to the problems being solved led to the development of high-level languages.
● High-level languages are portable to many different computers allowing the programmer to concentrate
on the application problem at hand rather than the intricacies of the computer.
 Computer Languages
Advantages of High Level Languages
1. Easy to write and understand
2. Easy to isolate an error
3. Machine independent language
4. Easy to maintain
5. Better readability
6. Low Development cost
7. Easier to document
8. Portable
 Computer Languages
Disadvantages of High Level Languages
1. Needs translator
2. Requires high execution time
3. Poor control on hardware
4. Less efficient
 Computer Languages
Language Translators
These are the programs which are used for converting the programs in one language into machine language
instructions, so that they can be executed by the computer.
These are:
1. Compiler: It is a program which is used to convert the high level language programs into machine
language
2. Assembler: : It is a program which is used to convert the assembly level language programs into
machine language
3. Interpreter: It is a program; it takes one statement of a high level language program, translates it into
machine language instruction and then immediately executes the resulting machine language instruction
and so on.
 Computer Languages
Research Assignment:
What are the differences between a compiler and an interpreter. (04 marks)
Programming
Programming is the act of writing instructions that make the computer do something useful.
It is the process creating instructions for computers to execute tasks.
It is used in various fields including software development, web development, data analysis and artificial
intelligence.
A programming language is a language that is designed to be read and written by humans to create programs that
can be executed by computers.
Examples of Programming languages
1. Python
2. Java
3. Javascript
4. C++
5. C#
6. Ruby
Programming
Steps taken in Programming
1. Analyze the problem; identifying the constraints and requirements.
2. Plan the solution: Break down the problem into smaller steps.
3. Write the code: Implement the solution using appropriate programming constructs.
4. Test and debug: Verify the correctness of the program and fix any errors or bugs

Qn: Why can’t we use natural languages to program computers?

Qn: Reflect on the advancements and emerging trends in computer hardware and software. Discuss
topics such as artificial intelligence, cloud computing, Internet of Things (IoT) and quantum
computing and how these technologies are shaping the future of computing.
Qn: Explain the concept of binary representation and how it is used in computer systems. Discuss the
relationship between binary code, digital circuits and the execution of instructions.
 Books used

[1] White, Ron. How Computers Work: The Evolution of

Technology. QUEPublishing, 2016.
End