M2.solar - Part1

Basics of Solar Energy,
Solar Thermal and

Photovoltaic Systems
Dr. Srikanth Allamsetty
Class 2. Class 4. Class 5. Class 6. Class 7.
Class 1. Depletion of Solar
Radiation, Solar Time,
Class 3. Solar Water Heater,
Solar Passive Space –
Solar Refrigeration and Solar Furnaces, Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors Air Conditioning Green House, Solar
Solar Radiations Heating and Cooling Fundamentals, Solar
Systems, Solar Cookers Dryer, Solar Distillation.
Measurement Systems Cell Characteristics
Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Solar Energy:
It is the energy received by the earth from the sun. This
energy is in the form of Solar radiation, which makes the
production of solar electricity possible.
 Radiation:
• Any surface which has a temperature above absolute zero
radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
• This does not mean, however, that the amount of thermal
radiation emitted is always significant.
• The process in which energy i.e., electromagnetic energy
is emitted in the form of particles is said to be the
radiation.
• The intensity and wavelength of the radiation emanating
from a surface are functions of both the temperature and
the surface properties.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Energy:
It is the energy received by the earth from the sun. This
energy is in the form of Solar radiation, which makes the
production of solar electricity possible.
 Solar Radiation:
• “Solar Radiation” is the electromagnetic radiation which is
emitted by the sun.
• Depending upon the nature of the surface, the radiation will
be absorbed, reflected or transmitted through the object.
• These effects take place when solar radiation strikes any
object.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Figure below schematically shows the geometry of the sun-
earth relationship.
 The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such that the distance
between the sun and the earth varies by 1.7%.
Eccentricity refer to some noticeable deviation in behavior, style, or manner from what is
normal or expected.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 The solar constant Gsc is the energy from the sun per unit time
received on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the radiation at mean earth-sun distance
outside the atmosphere.
A solar constant is a measurement of the solar electromagnetic radiation available in a meter squared at Earth's distance
from the sun. The solar constant is used to quantify the rate at which energy is received upon a unit surface such as a solar
panel.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Extra-terrestrial Radiation:
 The extra-terrestrial radiation is the radiation which is incident outside the
earth’s surface.
 Due to the change in distance between earth and sun, there is a seasonal
variation in the extraterrestrial rate.
Terrestrial Solar Radiation:
 It is the electromagnetic radiation which originates from earth and its
atmosphere.
 When the solar radiation reaches the earth’s surface, it is broken into two
components, i.e., diffuse radiation and beam radiation.
 Beam Radiation is the solar radiation which moves through the atmosphere
in a straight line without being scattered, reflected or absorbed by particles
in the air.
 Diffuse Radiation is the solar radiation which is being scattered, reflected or
absorbed by the particles while passing through the atmosphere but
ultimately reaches the earth’s surface.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

The difference between extra-terrestrial and terrestrial is that
extra-terrestrial is originating from outside of the earth's
atmosphere, from space, or from another planet; alien to earth or
its environment while terrestrial is of, relating to, or inhabiting the
land of the earth or its inhabitants.
In other words, the terrestrial radiation is the solar radiation that
reaches the surface of the earth after passing through the earth’s
atmosphere.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Variations in the earth–sun distance, however, lead to variations in
extraterrestrial radiation flux in the range of ±3.3%.
 The dependence of extraterrestrial radiation on the time of year is shown in
figure below.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 A simple equation with adequate accuracy for most engineering calculations
is given in equation below.
 where Gon is the extraterrestrial radiation incident
on the plane normal to the radiation on the nth
day of the year
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Terrestrial Radiation:
 While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively
constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:
 atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
 local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
 latitude of the location; and
 the season of the year and the time of day.
 The above effects have several impacts on the solar radiation received at the
Earth's surface.
 These changes include variations in the overall power received, the spectral
content of the light and the angle from which light is incident on a surface.
 In addition, a key change is that the variability of the solar radiation at a
particular location increases dramatically.
 The variability is due to both local effects such as clouds and seasonal
variations, as well as other effects such as the length of the day at a
particular latitude.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Terrestrial Radiation:
 While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively
constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:
 atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
 local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
 latitude of the location; and
 the season of the year and the time of day.
 The above effects have several impacts on the solar radiation received at the
Earth's surface.
 Desert regions tend to have lower variations due to local atmospheric
phenomena such as clouds.
 Equatorial regions have low variability between seasons.
 The amount of energy reaching the surface of the Earth every
hour is greater than the amount of energy used by the Earth's
population over an entire year.
Class 1. Class 4. Class 7.
Basics of Solar Energy: Class 5. Class 6.
Extra-terrestrial and Class 2. Class 3. Solar Water Heater,
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Terrestrial Radiations Solar Collectors Air Conditioning Green House, Solar
Heating and Cooling Fundamentals, Solar
Systems Cell Characteristics
Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

 47% of the incident solar energy reaches the Earth’s surface
 31% do so directly
 and the other 16% after being diffused by dust, water vapor, and air
molecules.
 The rest of the solar energy, 53%, does not reach the surface of the Earth,
 because 15% is absorbed by the troposphere (water, ozone, and clouds),
 23% is reflected by clouds,
 7% is reflected by the soil,
 2% is absorbed by the stratosphere, mainly by ozone,
 and the remaining 6% is the energy diffused by the atmosphere that is
directed toward the sky
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Insolation
 It is the incident solar radiation onto some object. Specifically, it is a measure of
the solar energy that is incident on a specified area over a set period of time.
 The insolation received at the surface of Earth depends upon the solar
constant (the rate at which solar radiation is received outside Earth’s atmosphere),
the distance from the Sun, inclination of the Sun’s rays, and the amount of
insolation depleted while passing through the atmosphere.
Depletion of Solar Radiation
 If the Sun’s radiation was not filtered or depleted in some manner, our planet
would soon be too hot for life to exist.
 We must now consider how the Sun’s heat energy is both dispersed and
depleted. This is accomplished through dispersion, scattering, reflection, and
absorption.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar time:
 Solar time is a calculation of the passage of time based on the position of
the Sun in the sky.
 The fundamental unit of solar time is the day.
 The solar day is the time it takes for the sun to return to the same meridian in
the sky.
 Local solar time is measured by a sundial .
 When the center of the sun is on an observer's meridian, the observer's local
solar time is zero hours
 Two types of solar time are apparent solar
time (sundial time) and mean solar
time (clock time).
Solar time=standard time±4(Lst- L loc)+E

Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar time:
Apparent solar time (sundial time)
 Apparent solar time or true solar time is based on the apparent motion of the
actual Sun.
 It is based on the apparent solar day, the interval between two successive
returns of the Sun to the local meridian.
Mean solar time (clock time)
 Time as calculated by the motion of the mean sun.
 kept by most clocks and watches, is the solar time that would be measured by
observation if the Sun traveled at a uniform apparent speed throughout the year
rather than, as it actually does, at a slightly varying apparent speed that depends
on the seasons.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 The Local Meridian is an imaginary Great Circle on the Celestial Sphere that is
perpendicular to the local Horizon.
 It passes through the North point on the Horizon, through the Celestial Pole, up to the
Zenith, and through the South point on the Horizon.
Celestial: positioned in or relating to the sky, or outer space as observed in astronomy

Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 The Local Meridian is an imaginary Great Circle on the Celestial Sphere that is
perpendicular to the local Horizon.
 It passes through the North point on the Horizon, through the Celestial Pole, up to the
Zenith, and through the South point on the Horizon.
Zenith: The point in the sky or celestial sphere directly above an observer.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 The difference between mean and apparent solar time is known

as the equation of time.
 This is usually expressed as a correction, never exceeding 16
minutes, that is added to or subtracted from apparent solar time
to determine mean solar time.
 The real Sun and the imaginary “mean Sun,” from which mean
solar time is measured, may be as much as 16 minutes apart
because during the course of the year the apparent motion of
the real Sun against the background of the stars (the ecliptic)
alternately slows down and speeds up.
 There are two reasons for this. First, the Earth’s orbit is not
exactly circular, and the Earth moves in it at slightly different
speeds in different seasons. Second, the Earth’s axis is tilted
relative to the plane of the Earth’s orbit.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Standard time: it is the synchronization of clocks within a

geographical area or region to a single time standard, rather
than using solar time or a locally chosen meridian to establish a
local mean time standard.
 It is the official time kept in a time zone, typically based on the
mean solar time of the central meridian in each time zone.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Radiations Measurement:
 Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident irradiation:
scattering and absorption.
 Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small
portion reaches the earth surface.
Different types of radiation at the earth surface: orange - short wave; blue - long
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Overview of different types of solar radiation data.

Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 The amount of solar radiation on the earth surface can be instrumentally
measured, and precise measurements are important for providing background
solar data for solar energy conversion applications.
 Pyrheliometer
 Pyranometer
 Photoelectric sunshine recorder.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Pyrheliometer
 Pyrheliometer is used to measure direct beam radiation at normal incidence.
 Measures the beam radiation coming from the sun and a small portion of the
sky around the sun.
 Based on the experimental studies involving various pyrheliometer designs,
the contribution of the circumsolar sky to the beam is relatively negligible on
a sunny day with clear skies.
 However, a hazy sky or a uniform thin cloud cover redistributes the radiation
so that contribution of the circumsolar sky to the measurement may become
more significant.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Pyranometer
 Pyranometer is used to measure total hemispherical radiation - beam plus
diffuse - on a horizontal surface.
 If shaded, a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation. Most of solar resource
data come from pyranometers.
 The total irradiance (W/m2) measured on a horizontal surface by a
pyranometer is expressed as follows:
 I total = I beam cosθ + I diffuse
 where θ is the zenith angle (i.e., angle between the incident ray and the
normal to the horizontal instrument plane.
 Pyranometers are also used to measure solar radiation on inclined surfaces,
which is important for estimating input to collectors.
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

(a) Pyranometer (b) Pyrheliometer

Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Photoelectric sunshine recorder
 The most potent radiation that creates the highest potential for concentration
and conversion is the bright sunshine, which has a large beam component.
 The duration of the bright sunshine at a locale is measured by a photoelectric
sunshine recorder.
 The device has two selenium photovoltaic cells, one of which is shaded, and
the other is exposed to the available solar radiation.
 When there is no beam radiation, the signal output from both cells is similar,
while in bright sunshine, signal difference between the two cells is
maximized.
 This technique can be used to monitor the bright sunshine hours.
Class 1. Class 2. Class 4. Class 7.
Basics of Solar Energy:
Depletion of Solar Solar Water Heater,
Class 5. Class 6. Solar Photovoltaic
Extra-terrestrial and
Terrestrial Radiations
Radiation, Solar Time, Class 3. Solar Passive Space –
Solar Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
Solar Furnaces, Solar
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Energy is recovered by solar collectors, which are mechanical devices that
capture radiant solar energy and convert it to useful thermal energy.
 This energy can be stored (if appropriate or required) and converted to satisfy
electricity, thermal, or mechanical energy demands.
 Different types of solar collectors can be applied, depending on the application.
Types of collectors
 Stationary Collectors (Non-Concentrating)
 Stationary Collectors (Concentrating)
 Sun Tracking
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Integration of energy storage systems with CSP technologies enables the
prolongation of the operation hours of solar power plants and could
mitigate the dependence and direct relationship between CSP technologies
and climatic conditions, such as clouds or low solar irradiation.
A generic concentrating solar power plant.

Courtesy L. Witmer, Overview of Solar Thermal Power Systems j EME 811: Solar Thermal Energy for Utilities and Industry [WWW Document], Pennsylvania State Univ., 2017.
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
Types of collectors
Indicative
Absorber Concentration
Motion Collector type temperature
type ratio
range (°C)
Flat plate collector (FPC) Flat 1 30-80
Stationary Evacuated tube collector (ETC) Flat 1 50-200
1-5 60-240
Compound parabolic collector (CPC) Tubular
5-15 60-300
Single- Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) Tubular 10-40 60-250
axis
tracking Parabolic trough collector (PTC) Tubular 15-45 60-300
Cylindrical trough collector (CTC) Tubular 10-50 60-300
Two-axes Parabolic dish reflector (PDR) Point 100-1000 100-500
tracking Heliostat field collector (HFC) Point 100-1500 150-2000
Note: Concentration ratio is defined as the aperture area divided by the receiver/absorber area
of the collector.
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 This figure represents the concept involved in the solar concentrator and
important types of solar collectors.
Solar collectors: (A) parabolic troughs; (B) parabolic dishes; (C) tower; and (D) linear Fresnel reflectors.
Courtesy R. Guerrero-Lemus, J.M.M. Martı´nez-Duart, Concentrated solar power, in: Renewable Energies and CO2, Springer-Verlag, London, 2013, pp. 135e151.
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Parabolic trough collectors
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Parabolic trough collectors
Scheme of a parabolic trough power plant.

Courtesy V. Quaschning, Solar thermal power plants: technology fundamentals, Renew. Energy World (2003) 109e113.
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Parabolic dish collectors
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Parabolic dish collectors
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 Tower type solar collectors
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
Solar thermal tower power plant with steam turbine cycle.

Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
Solar thermal tower power plant with pressurized receiver using combined gas and steam turbine cycle.
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 linear Fresnel reflectors
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 linear Fresnel reflectors
 Silver and aluminum are the most common materials with high
reflectance, thus, used for solar reflectors
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
CSP Technology Integration Advantages Disadvantages
Storage Possibility
Parabolic Trough Possible •Relatively low installation • Relatively large area
Collector cost occupied
• Large experimental • Low thermodynamic
feedback efficiency due to low
operating temperature
Linear Fresnel Possible Relatively low installation Low thermodynamic
Reflector cost efficiency due to low
Solar Power Highly High thermodynamic • Large space area
Tower possible with efficiency due to high occupied
low storage operating temperature • Relatively high
cost. installation cost
• High heat losses
Parabolic Dish Difficult • Relatively small area • Relatively high
occupied installation cost
• High thermodynamic • Little experimental
efficiency due to high feedback
Air Conditioning
Green House, Solar
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Collectors
 This figure shows that the concentration ratio always increases the global
plant efficiency, and that there is a trade-off relationship between the two
efficiencies (heat engine + absorber), leading to optimum operation
temperatures.
Theoretical thermal efficiency for different collector technologies.

Courtesy B.B. Hoffschmidt, Receivers for Solar Tower Systems [WWW Document], 2014.
Depletion of Solar
Class 3. Class 4. Solar Refrigeration and Solar Furnaces, Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Radiations Fundamentals, Solar
Measurement Cell Characteristics
Solar Water Heater, Solar Passive Space – Heating and Cooling Systems
Types of Solar Water Heater

A. Passive / Flat Plate Collector type Since warm water is less dense
than colder water, it stays on top.
B. Active / Evacuated Tube Collector type
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Passive Solar Water Heater
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Using solar energy to heat water can be extremely cost-effective.
 One of the reasons it can work cheaply is that it doesn’t require pumps.
 The water can be circulated while it is being heated using the principle of
the thermosyphon.
Thermosyphon is a method of passive heat

exchange, based on natural convection, which
circulates a fluid without the necessity of a
mechanical pump.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 The reason the thermosyphon works is because a cold fluid is denser
than a warm fluid.
 As a result, you get a pressure difference in the two legs of the system.
 This pressure difference works to constantly circulate the water.
 The water sinks on the cold, denser side, and rises on the warm, less
dense side.
 Thermosyphon water systems are great in the developing world because
they can be built very cheaply, using plastic pipe and 55-gallon drums.
 It needs a one-way valve.
 At night, the solar collector reverses function, and it becomes a thermal
radiator.
 It radiates away the heat towards outer space during night time.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 This makes the “Return” leg of the circuit (shown in red) colder and
therefore denser than the “Advance” leg of the circuit (shown in blue).
 Absence of a one-way valve reverses the circulation entirely.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 As a result, during the night-time, the circuit as shown takes warm water
from the top of the tank and circulates it to the thermal radiator.
 There it is cooled by radiation to space and returned to the bottom of the
tank.
 It is a reverse thermosyphon system,

which will run as long as the water
in the tank is warmer than the
thermal radiator.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Active Solar Water Heater
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Active Solar Water Heater
 In active solar water-heating systems, pumps circulate water from the
storage tank to the collector.
 In a direct system, the water to be used by the building occupants runs
directly through the solar collectors.
 In an indirect system, either water or another heat-conducting liquid runs
through the collectors and then passes through a heat exchanger to heat
the water used by building occupants.
 A heat exchanger requires more piping than shown in the diagram above.
 Excessive heat buildup also can harm a system.
 Controllers are usually solid-state devices that direct the pumps in a solar
water-heating system to operate in a manner that optimizes the transfer of
heat from the collector to storage to avoid dangerous levels of heat
buildup in the collector.
Home assignment: Why heat exchangers need to be used? (Not what is its purpose)
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
, efficiently.
 Idle fluid in the collector can freeze, because it radiates heat up to a cold,
dark sky.
 Freezing can be prevented by using antifreeze instead of water as
the heat transfer fluid.
 Antifreeze also contains liquid alcohols like ethylene glycol, propylene glycol,
and methanol
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Passive Space
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Passive Space – Heating Systems
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Passive systems are typically less costly and less complex than active
systems.
 Passive Solar Space Heating takes advantage of warmth from the sun
through design features:
 such as large south-facing windows, and materials in the floors or walls that absorb
warmth during the day and release that warmth at night when it is needed most.
 Use insulated glass that lets heat energy pass in and then holds it inside.
 Use floors and interior walls of masonry or concrete to soak up and store heat during
the day and thick, airtight insulation in outer walls to seal in heat overnight.
 Additional insulating windows on the other three walls, not shown here, provide
daylighting.
 Passive solar design systems usually have one of the three designs:
 Direct Gain
 Indirect Gain
 Isolated Gain
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Direct Gain: stores and slowly releases heat energy collected from the sun
shining directly into the building and warming materials such as tile or
concrete.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Indirect Gain: uses materials that hold, store, and release heat; the
material is located between the sun and living space.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Isolated Gain: collects solar energy remote from the location of the
primary living area.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Active Solar Space Heating Systems
 Active solar space heating systems consist of collectors that collect and
absorb solar radiation combined with electric fans or pumps to transfer
and distribute that solar heat.
 Active systems also generally have an energy storage system to provide
heat when the sun is not shining.
 The two basic types of active solar space-heating systems use either liquid
or air as the heat-transfer medium in their solar energy collectors
 Liquid-based systems heat water and air-based systems heat air in the
collector.
 Both of these systems collect and absorb solar radiation, then transfer the
solar heat directly to the interior space or to a storage system, from which
the heat is distributed.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Solar Passive Space – Cooling Systems
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 The goal of passive cooling is to cool the home or building without using
air conditioning and instead using shading, natural ventilation and
adequate construction materials.
 Shading:
 Trees: Use deciduous trees on the sunniest side of the structure (for the
Northern Hemisphere that's the south side and for the Southern Hemisphere
the north side) and also on the east and west for the maximum shade.
 Overhangs: If properly built and dimensioned overhangs can block out most
of the sum in the summer when the sun is at its highest.
 Low Thermal Materials: Materials like wood and metal have low thermal mass
meaning they are hard to heat up and cool down quickly. This is ideal in materials
for a passive cooling building. Wood frames with a metal roof are used often.
 Reflective Exterior Surfaces: Large amount of the sun's heat can be reflected away
with the right surfaces. Shiny or smooth surfaces and the color white work the
best. By making roofs reflect the sunlight instead of absorbing it can really cut
down on our energy consumption and therefore lessen our CO2 output.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Passive cooling systems are least expensive means of cooling a home
which maximizes the efficiency of the building envelope without any use of
mechanical devices.
 The primary focus of passive cooling is:
 Slow heat transfer into the house.
 Remove unwanted heat from the building.
 Various passive technologies that can be adopted in the various climatic
zones in India are as follow:
 Shading system
 Ventilation
 Solar chimney
 Thermal mass
 Wind towers
 Evaporative cooling system
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Shading system: The most effective method of cooling a building is to
shade windows, walls and roof of building from direct solar radiation.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Shading system: The most effective method of cooling a building is to
shade windows, walls and roof of building from direct solar radiation.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
 Passive ventilation: when air is exchanged in a building through openings in
the building envelope using the stack and wind pressures.
 These are the passive cooling ventilation strategy:
Cross-Ventilation Stack Ventilation
strategies place air inlets on the windward cool air is pulled throughout the home while
side and air outlets on the leeward side of warmer air rises above the cool air to exit
the home. through an opening near the top of the structure.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Advantages of Passive Solar Design Disadvantages of Passive Solar Design

Eliminate heating and cooling costs Great deal of work for the engineers to
arrange this system.
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions All systems are not same.
Clean process Careful construction required
Eco-friendly Improperly designed not work well
Attractive living environment Sunshine not available all day
Unwavering comfort Extra heat and the higher
temperatures
Low maintenance and overall cost Thermal wall loses heat back to the
out-of-doors through the glass
Basics of Solar Energy: Class 6.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Passive Space – Class 5. Solar Furnaces, Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Terrestrial Radiations Solar Collectors Green House, Solar
Dryer, Solar Distillation.
Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration
 Solar energy is proved to be an ideal source for low temperature
heating applications.
 Three known approaches that use solar energy to provide
refrigeration at temperature below 0 degrees include
 photovoltaic (PV) operated,
 solar mechanical, and
 absorption refrigeration.
 Both PV operated and solar mechanical cycles rely on vapor
compression refrigeration cycle whereas absorption refrigeration
uses thermal energy as the primary input to the cycle.
 Among these three approaches, the photovoltaic system is the most
viable and appropriate means for small capacity portable systems
located in areas not near conventional energy resources.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Photovoltaic Operated Refrigeration
A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a gaseous substance into a liquid state
through cooling. In so doing, the latent heat is released by the substance and transferred to the
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

An evaporator is a device used to turn the liquid form of a chemical substance such as water
into its gaseous-form/vapor. The liquid is evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas form of the
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Photovoltaic (PV) involve the direct conversion of solar radiation to

direct current (DC) electricity using semi conducting materials.
 That power can be used to operate a dc motor, which is coupled to
the compressor of a vapor compression refrigeration system.
 The major considerations in designing a PV-refrigeration cycle involve
appropriately matching the electrical characteristics of the motor
driving the compressor with the available current and voltage being
produced by the PV array.
 PV modules will operate over a wide range of conditions that are
rarely as favorable as the rating condition.
 In addition, the power produced by a PV array is as variable as the
solar resource from which it is derived.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Mechanical Refrigeration
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Solar mechanical refrigeration uses a conventional vapour compression
system driven by mechanical power that is produced with a solar-driven
heat power cycle.
 The heat power cycle usually considered for this application is a Rankine
cycle in which a fluid is vaporized at an elevated pressure by heat
exchange with a fluid heated by solar collectors.
 A storage tank can be included to provide some high temperature
thermal storage.
 The vapour flows through a turbine or piston expander to produce
mechanical power.
 The fluid exiting the expander is condensed and pumped back to the
boiler pressure where it is again vaporized.
 The overall efficiency of solar mechanical refrigeration, defined as the
ratio of mechanical energy produced to the incident solar radiation, is the
product of the efficiencies of the solar collector and the power cycle.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Absorption Refrigeration
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Absorption refrigeration is the least intuitive of the solar refrigeration
alternatives.
 Unlike the PV and solar mechanical refrigeration options, the absorption
refrigeration system is considered a “heat driven” system that requires
minimal mechanical power for the compression process.
 It replaces the energy-intensive compression in a vapor compression
system with a heat activated “thermal compression system.”
 Ammonia is working fluid.
 Minimal mechanical power input (pump instead of compressor).
 Absorption into water solution allows it to be pumped.
 Desorbed in generator (rectifier required to separate out water).
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Heat into generator provided by solar collector.
 The pressurization is achieved by dissolving the refrigerant in the
absorbent, in the absorber section.
 Subsequently, the solution is pumped to a high pressure with an ordinary
liquid pump.
 In this way the refrigerant vapour is compressed without the need of
large amounts of mechanical energy that the vapour-compression air
conditioning systems demand.
 This system greatly increases complexity.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Refrigeration
 Advantages:
 less pollution (Conventional refrigeration systems emit significant
amount of gas which pollute the environment)
 Additional power from the solar collector can also be used for the
other domestic purposes
 Disadvantages:
 solar radiation is not uniform and not available throughout the day
 Even in the hottest regions on earth, the average solar radiation flux
rarely exceeds 1 kWh/m2 and the maximum radiation flux over a day is
about 6 kWh/m2.
 It needs bigger collector.
 Initial investment to develop such set up is also large.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Air Conditioning Systems
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Solar absorption systems
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar absorption systems (same as absorption refrigeration):
 It uses an absorber and a generator instead of the compressor.
 Therefore, no electrical power is needed to pressurize the refrigerant
(water or ammonia).
 In fact, the refrigerant is first absorbed in an absorbing material and then
pressurized in the absorbed liquid phase.
 The pressurized absorption mixture is then reheated in a solar-powered
generator to regenerate the pressurized refrigerant vapor.
 After that, it is deliquesced in the condenser in order to become liquid,
which is then expanded through an expansion valve.
 The chilled refrigerant causes the cooling effect in the evaporator.
 Finally, the refrigerant is transferred to the absorber and a new cycle is
beginning.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

 Solar adsorption systems
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar adsorption systems:
 An adsorption cooling system is a heat-activated cooling system.
 The basic adsorption cycle relies on the adsorption of a refrigerant vapor
(adsorbate) into an adsorbent bed at low pressure and subsequent
desorption at a high pressure by heating the adsorbent bed.
 They use natural refrigerants such as the water and can be driven by a
low-temperature heat source
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Cookers
 The use of solar energy for cooking eliminates the air pollution, use of
scarce firewood, its cost, and burden.
 Conventional solar cookers are thermal.
 This means that the sun rays are impacting on an absorbing surface where
they are instantly dissipated as heat that is transferred to the food.
 The heat transfer to the food can be direct or can be diverted to an
additional body that stores it for a delayed use, constituting the indirect
solar cookers.
 Another possibility is to transform the sun’s energy into electricity by
means of a PV solar panel.
 This electricity can be easily transported using cables to a remote (indoor)
ohmic resistance put in contact with the food or even submerged in it.
 This makes a PV solar cooker.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Cookers (Thermal)
(A) Section of a generic solar box oven

containing a single pot.
(B) A Cookit type solar thermal cooker made
of cardboard and aluminum foil.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Cookers (PV)
Photovoltaic (PV) solar cooker indicating thermal

losses
Layout of a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) solar cooker with no batteries, using an electronic controller
including a charging port for externals.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Refrigeration and Class 6. Solar Photovoltaic
Systems: Solar Cell
Terrestrial Radiations Solar Collectors Air Conditioning
Systems, Solar Cookers
Solar Furnaces, Solar Green House, Solar Dryer, Solar Distillation.

Solar Furnaces
 Details of sun:
 diameter: 1,390,000 km.
 mass: 1.989e30 kg
 temperature: 5800 K (surface) 15,600,000 K (core)
 The sun’s energy output (3.86 x1026 Watts)
 Solar furnace is a device that uses an array of mirrors to redirect and
concentrate the sun’s rays onto a small surface area thus producing
extremely high temperature.
 The temperature can go as high as 3773 K
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Furnaces
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Furnaces
 A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of a
spherical surface.
 There are two types of spherical mirrors: concave, and convex.
reflection or refraction?
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Furnaces
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Furnaces
 The operation principle of a solar furnace is quite simple.
 It entails the use of two mirrors, plane mirror and parabolic mirror.
 The plane mirror is known as Heliostat and is angled such that it directs
parallel beam of light to the parabolic mirror.
 The parabolic mirror then brings the light beam to focus at the focal point.
 When the number of mirrors is increased, then it is possible to achieve
energy and heat levels where one can actually boil water, cook food or
even melt metals.
 The amount of energy and efficiency of the solar furnace relay completely
on how accurate the mirrors are focused on one point.
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Furnaces
Applications:
 Domestic uses
− Cooking
− Heating of water
 Agricultural uses
− Drying of farm produce
− Incubation of chicken
 Industrial uses
− Recycling of waste
− Welding of machine parts
− Produce Hydrogen Fuel
− Perform Scientific Experiments Which Require Extreme Temperatures
− Running Steam Turbines for Solar Power Plants
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Green House
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Green House
 Incoming UV radiation easily
passes through the glass walls
of a greenhouse and is
absorbed by the plants and
hard surfaces inside.
 Weaker IR radiation, however,
has difficulty passing through
the glass walls and is trapped
inside, thus warming the
greenhouse.
 This effect lets tropical plants
thrive inside a greenhouse,
even during a cold winter.
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Dryer
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Direct Solar Dryer
 Direct solar dryers have the material to be dried placed in an
enclosure, with a transparent cover on it.
 Heat is generated by absorption of solar radiation on the product
itself as well as on the internal surfaces of the drying chamber.
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Indirect Solar Dryer
 solar radiation is not directly incident on the material to be dried.
 Air is heated in a solar collector and then ducted to the drying
chamber to dry the product
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

is the force exerted on an object that is wholly or
Solar Dryers partly immersed in a fluid.
 Passive: In a passive solar dryer, air is heated and circulated naturally by
buoyancy force or as a result of wind pressure or in combination of both.
 Normal and reverse absorber cabinet dryer and greenhouse dryer
operates in passive mode.
 Active: The active solar dryers are motorized and equipped with
fans/pumps for air circulation.
 All active solar dryer are, thus, by their application, forced convection
dryer.
 Integral type active dryers: the solar collector forms an integral part of
the roof/wall of the drying/storage chamber.
 Distributed type active solar dryer: it is one in which the solar collector
and drying chamber are separate units.
 Mixed-mode type dryers: they are rather uncommon designs and it
combines some features of the integral and distributed type.
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Distillation
 Solar distillation is the use of solar energy to evaporate water and collect
its condensate within the same closed system.
 Unlike other forms of water purification it can turn salt or brackish water
into fresh drinking water
Depletion of Solar
Systems: Solar Cell

Solar Distillation
 When it comes to freshwater production, distillation is the process of
purifying dirty water by boiling it, leaving any contaminates behind and then
condensing the steam vapour back into freshwater.
 It can be done using a solar still.
 A solar still can be a very simple piece of equipment, which converts the suns
solar radiation into thermal energy by providing a storage area for the heat.
 Basically a greenhouse solar still consists of a square, round or rectangular
basin or trough to hold the dirty water with a transparent cover over the top.
 This cover acts as the main condenser and is sloped steep enough to allow
water forming on it to flow down to the bottom into a collecting trough.
 The cover also reduces heat losses and keeps the wind away.
 The suns radiation warms and heats the water which evaporates and the
resulting vapour condenses on the inside surface of the glass cover.
 Collection troughs are placed at the bottom of the cover to collect the
purified distillate water.
Depletion of Solar
Solar Refrigeration and Solar Furnaces, Solar Class 7.
Solar Radiations Heating and Cooling
Measurement Systems
Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Solar Cell Fundamentals, Solar Cell Characteristics

Solar Cell Fundamentals
 A solar cell, is a large-area semiconductor diode, made from silicon.
 It consists of a p-n junction created by an impurity addition (doping) into
the semiconductor crystal.
 If impurities are phosphorus-atoms, which have five outer electrons, only
four electrons are required to fit the atom into the silicon crystal
structure, the fifth electron is mobile and free.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

 By doping the crystal with boron atoms, which have only three outer
electrons, one electron is always missing for a complete binding into the
crystal structure.
 This electron could be “borrowed“ from neighboring atoms, so the place
of the missing electron is shifted.
 This missing electron could also be seen as a “hole“ with a positive charge
that is mobile and wandering.
 There are much more free holes than free electrons in the p-regions, so
the electrons are called minority charge carriers there.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

 Due to the differences in concentration at the “frontier“ between the two
regions, electrons diffuse into the p-regions and “holes“ into n-regions,
therefore an electrical field in the formerly electrical neutral junction
comes into existence as shown in figure below.
 It is nothing but the
buildup of the space-
charge-region.
 It increases until a
further practical
diffusion of carriers
is avoided by it.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

 Light falling into the semiconductor generates electron-hole-pairs,
causing an increase in the concentration of the minority charge carriers
by several orders of magnitude.
 These charge carriers diffuse to the space charge zone and are divided by
the electric field there.
 Between the contacts
of the n-side and p-side
a tension V could be
detected.
 When a load resistor R
is applied, a current I
flows through it, and
electrical power is
dissipated.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

 In other words: in a solar cell, when a photon of energy greater than the
band gap strikes the material, electron–hole pairs are created.
 Under the influence of electric field, they are separated and transported
to their respective contacts from which they are extracted as current.
 Layer thickness, material type, defects, and device architecture directly
affect the fill factor (FF), power conversion efficiency (PCE), losses, and
absorption capacity of the solar cell.
 The limiting parameters such as layer thickness, its properties, and
defects can be controlled depending upon the type of the manufacturing
technique used.
 Hence, depending upon the designing approaches, solar cell technology
may be classified into two categories, i.e., crystalline Si-based technology
and thin film-based technology.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

Solar Cell Characteristics
 The characteristic of a solar cell without any irradiance (dark
characteristic) corresponds to a diode characteristic as shown below.
 When the solar cell is
illuminated, this
characteristic shifts by
the amount of the photo
current Iphot in blocking
direction (light
characteristic).
 This solar cell
characteristic is
determined by plotting
the resulting currents
and voltages at different
loads.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

 The short-circuit current ISC is one of the most essential characteristics of a
solar cell.
 It occurs in an
illuminated, short-
circuited solar cell.
 Open-circuit voltage VOC :
One describes the
tension between the
contacts if no current is
taken (open circuit).
 The theoretically
attainable (optimal)
power which can be
taken from the terminal,
Popt =Isc x Voc
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems

 The attainable power Pmax is defined by the greatest possible product of V
and I at an operating point: Pmax=Pmp=Imp x Vmp
 The so called “Maximum
Power Point“ (MPP) is
given by Imp and Vmp.
 The ratio of Pmax to Popt is
called the fill factor FF.
 It describes the
“rectangularness” of the
trace of the characteristic.
 Figure shows the power P
as a function of the
tension V and the
corresponding I-V Current-Voltage characteristics and Power-Voltage
characteristics characteristics of a silicon solar cell.
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems
Solar Cell Classification

based on technology
 Conventional, traditional, or first generation solar

cells
 Because they are produced from 160–190 μm
thick solar wafers, they are sometimes called
 In the thin film-based technology, the thickness
wafer-based solar cells.
 more efficient than the second-generation is from few nanometers to few micrometers,
which results in faster charge collection.
technologies
 Inorganic thin film-based solar cells require high
vacuum and higher processing temperature
which limits their large-scale production
Depletion of Solar
Measurement Systems
Solar Cell Classification

based on the primary active material

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Basics of Solar Energy,

Solar Thermal and

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Basics of Solar Energy: Extra-terrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Solar time=standard time±4(Lst- L loc)+E

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Celestial: positioned in or relating to the sky, or outer space as observed in astronomy

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

 The difference between mean and apparent solar time is known

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

 Standard time: it is the synchronization of clocks within a

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Overview of different types of solar radiation data.

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

(a) Pyranometer (b) Pyrheliometer

Depletion of Solar Radiation, Solar Time, Solar Radiations Measurement

A generic concentrating solar power plant.

Scheme of a parabolic trough power plant.

Solar thermal tower power plant with steam turbine cycle.

Theoretical thermal efficiency for different collector technologies.

Types of Solar Water Heater

Thermosyphon is a method of passive heat

 It is a reverse thermosyphon system,

Advantages of Passive Solar Design Disadvantages of Passive Solar Design

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

 Photovoltaic (PV) involve the direct conversion of solar radiation to

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers

Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Solar Cookers