Chapter

Chapter Three
Three
Research Design
The meaning of Research Design
• A research design is the arrangement of conditions for the
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
address the research problem.
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what
means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a
research design.
• In fact the research design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.
• A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. 1
• The research design should be inline with:
– What is the study about? (Problem definition)
– Why is the study being made? (Justification)
– Where will the study be carried out? (Location)
– What type of data is required? (Quanti, Qual, Pri, Sec)
– Where can the required data be found (target
population)
– What will be the sample design (technique chosen)
– What techniques of data collection will be used?
(observation, interview, questionnaire, or document
analysis)
– How will the data be analyzed (Data Analysis
techniques & tools to be employed)

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• We may split the overall research design into three:
– The sampling design - which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed.
– The statistical design - which concerns with the question of
how many items are to be observed and how the information
and data gathered are to be analyzed.
– The operational design - which deals with the techniques
by which the procedures specified in the sampling, Statistical
and observational designs can be carried out.
• From what has been stated above, we can state the
important features of a research design as under:
– It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.

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Important concepts in research design
• Variable: a concept which can take on different
values
– Continuous variable:
• A quantitative variable for which all values with in
some range are possible.
• a variable which can assume any numerical value
within a specific range. (eg. Age, weight, depth etc)
• These variables are often grouped in intervals.
– Discrete variable:
• A quantitative variable which does not take on all
values in a continuum, often the variables can
assume integer values only/ the individual values fall
on the scale only with distinct gaps. (eg. # of children) 4
Important concepts …
– Dependent variable:
– Independent variable:
– Extraneous variables: affect the Dependent variable.
– Control variable: a variable used to minimize the
effects of extraneous variables.
• Experimental and Control Groups (in
experimental hypothesis testing research)
– Control group: a group exposed to usual conditions
– Experimental group: a group exposed to some special
conditions
• Treatments: the different conditions under which
experimental and control groups are put.
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Important concepts
Example:
• Investigating the of perception employees on the usage
of the new ATM services to take their salary.

Control Group Exp. Group

A B
Usual Conditions Special Conditions
(Usual study prog.) (Special study prog.)

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 Sampling Design
• Population: the entire group under study as
defined by research objectives.
– Sometimes called the “universe.” or
– Reference population
• Researchers define populations in specific
terms such as heads of households,
individual person types, families, types of
retail outlets, etc.
• Population, geographic location and time of
study are also considered

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Sampling Design

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• Sample: a subset of the population that
should represent the entire group.
• Sample unit: the basic level of
investigation…consumers, store managers,
shelf-facings, adolescence, etc.
– The research objective should define the sample
unit.
• Census: is the counting of the complete
population.

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Calculating sample frame error (SFE):
– Subtract the number of items on the sampling list
from the total number of items in the population.
– Take this number and divide it by the total
population. Multiply this decimal by 100 to
convert to percent (SFE must be expressed in %)
– If the SFE was 40%, this would mean that 40% of
the population was not in the sampling frame.
• Practical considerations when taking samples:
– cost and population size
– Nature & purpose of the study
– Inability of researcher to analyze large quantities
of data potentially generated by a census
• Samples can produce sound results if proper
rules are followed for the draw 10
Two Types of Sampling Methods:
– Probability sampling: members of the population
have a known chance of being selected
– Non-probability sampling: the chances of
selecting members from the population are
unknown.

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Assignment2: Discuss the following sampling techniques
well: describe each, discuss the advantages &
disadvantages too.
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Cluster Sampling
4. Stratified sampling
5. Muti-stage sampling
6. Snowball sampling
7. Purposive sampling
8. Convenience sampling
9. Quota sampling (proportional & non-proportional)
10. Judgmental sampling
11. Expert sampling
12. How to Determine sample sizes? Formulas, Considerations to
determine sample size
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1. Simple random sampling: the probability of
being selected is “known and equal” for all
members of the population
– Blind Draw/Lottery Method (e.g. names “placed
in a hat” and then drawn randomly)
– Random Numbers Method (all items in the
sampling frame given numbers, numbers then
drawn using table or computer program)
• Advantages:
– Known and equal chance of selection
– Easy method when there is an electronic
database
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Disadvantages:
– Complete accounting of population needed
– Very inefficient when applied to skewed
population distribution

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2. Systematic sampling:
– It is the way to select a probability-based
sample from a directory or list.
– This method is at times more efficient than
simple random sampling.
– This is a type of cluster sampling method.
• Sampling interval (SI) = population list size (N)
divided by a pre-determined sample size (n)

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How to draw?
1) calculate SI,
2) select a number between 1 and SI randomly,
3) go to this number as the starting point and the
item on the list here is the first in the sample,
4) add SI to the position number of this item and
the new position will be the second sampled
item,
5) continue this process until desired sample size
is reached.

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• Advantages:
– Known and equal chance of any of the SI
“clusters” being selected
– Efficiency. do not need to designate (assign a
number to) every population member, just those
early on the list (unless there is a very large
sampling frame).
– Less expensive…faster than SRS
• Disadvantages:
– Small loss in sampling precision
– Potential “periodicity” problems

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3. Cluster sampling:
– Method by which the population is divided into
groups (clusters),
– Any of which can be considered a
representative sample.
– These clusters are mini-populations and
therefore are heterogeneous.
– Once clusters are established, a random draw
is done to select one (or more) clusters to
represent the population.

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• Advantages
– Economic efficiency … faster and less
expensive than SRS
– Does not require a list of all members of the
universe
• Disadvantage:
– Cluster specification error…the more
homogeneous the cluster chosen, the more
imprecise the sample results.

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• Non probability Sampling Methods
1. Convenience samples: samples drawn at the
convenience of the interviewer.
– People tend to make the selection at familiar
locations
– Taking of samples that are readily available
– E.g. those that arrive on a scene by coincidence
– Appropriate for some less demanding research
• Error occurs
1) in the form of members of the population
who are infrequent or nonusers of that
location and
2) who are not typical in the population
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• Non probability Sampling Methods

2. Judgment samples:
– Samples that require a judgment or an
“educated guess” on the part of the interviewer
as to who should represent the population.
– Also, “judges” (informed individuals) may be
asked to suggest who should be in the sample.
• Subjectivity enters in here, and certain
members of the population will have a
smaller or no chance of selection compared
to others

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Steps in Sampling Process
– Defining the population
– Specifying the sampling unit
– Specifying the sampling frame ( the means of
representing the elements of the population)
– Specifying the sampling method
– Determining the sampling size
– Specifying the sampling plan
– Selecting the sample
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Measurement & Measurement Scales
• Measurement is the process through which researchers
describe, explain, and predict the phenomena and
constructs of our daily experiences
• The concept of measurement is important in a research in
two key areas:
– Enables researchers to quantify abstract constructs &
Variables.
– used to analyze sophisticated statistical data
Non metric Data vs. Metric Data
– Non metric data (also referred to as qualitative data)-
which cannot be quantified and are predominantly used
to describe and categorize.
– Metric data (also referred to as quantitative data)-are
used to examine amounts and magnitudes. 23
Four main scales of measurement
1. Nominal scales
2. Ordinal scales
3. Interval scales, and
4. Ratio scales.
• Nominal and ordinal scales are non metric
• Interval & ratio scales  metric
1. Nominal scales:- are the least sophisticated type of
measurement and are used only to qualitatively classify
or categorize.
– Measures identity only
– They have no absolute zero point and cannot be
ordered in a quantitative sequence, and there is no
equal unit of measurement between categories.
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– They do not imply amounts of an attribute or
characteristic.
• This makes it impossible to conduct standard
mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, division, and multiplication.
– Examples of nominal scale data include gender,
religious and political affiliation, place of birth, city
of residence, ethnicity,
– Marital status, eye and hair color, and
employment status

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2. Ordinal scale:- measurement is characterized by
the ability to measure a variable in terms of both
identity and magnitude.
– This makes it a higher level of measurement than the
nominal scale
– Measures relative magnitude in relation to other variables.
– Variables can be ranked in relation to the amount of the
attribute possessed.
– Ordinal scales represent the rank or ordering of variables
Example - finishing position of runners in a race.
– Lack the mathematical properties necessary for
sophisticated statistical analyses. 26
3. Interval scale:-
– builds on ordinal measurement by providing information
about both order and distance between values of
variables.
– The numbers on an interval scale are scaled at equal
distances, but there is no absolute zero point. Instead, the
zero point is arbitrary.
• Examples include temperature measured in
Fahrenheit and Celsius.
– Lack of an absolute zero point makes division
and multiplication impossible
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4. Ratio scale:- The properties of the ratio scale are
identical to those of the interval scale, except that the
ratio scale has an absolute zero point, which means
that all mathematical operations are possible.
– Example –Money- It is possible to have no (or zero)
money—a zero balance in a checking account is an
example of an absolute zero point.
Characteristics:
– Identical to the interval scale, except that they have
an absolute zero point.
– Unlike with interval scale data, all mathematical
operations are possible.
Examples include height, weight, and time.
– Highest level of measurement.
– Allow for the use of sophisticated statistical techniques28.
 Instrument Design
• Based on hypotheses identified in in the stages of
research process
• Most important question researcher can ask before
begin writing
• Survey-type instruments can yield three types of
information.
A. Reports of Fact - self-disclosure of some objective
information (e.g., age, gender, education, behavior)
B. Ratings of Opinion or Preference -evaluative
response to statement (e.g., satisfaction,
agreement, like\dislike)
C. Reports of Intended Behavior - self-disclosure of
motivation or intention (e.g., likeliness, willingness)
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How will administration be accomplished?
A. Self-administered surveys - subject responds to
printed questions (e.g., group or mail surveys)
Advantages
– Ask questions with long, complex or visual response
categories
– Ask sequences of similar questions
– Respondent does not share answers with immediate
person
Disadvantages
– Careful questionnaire design is required
– Open response questions not useful
– Good reading and writing skills by respondents are
needed
– Very little quality control over administration 30
B. Other-administered surveys
– Subject responds to questions directly posed by
researcher (e.g., interview, phone survey)
Advantages
– Most effective in joining cooperation (initial and
length)
– Opportunity to answer respondent questions and
ensure quality of data (e.g., probe adequate
answers, answer all questions)
– Rapport and confidence building possible
Disadvantages
– Cost and time requirements
– Adequate training of staff
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– Accessibility of sample
A. Open-ended Questions - permits subject freedom
to answer question in own words (without pre-
specified alternatives
Advantages
– Obtain unanticipated answers
– May better reflect respondents thoughts\beliefs
– Appropriate when list of possible answers is
excessive
Disadvantages
– Flexibility in responses difficult to code and
analyze
– Provide incomplete or unintelligible answers
B. Close-ended Questions - subject selects from list
of pre-determined, acceptable responses
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Types of closed-ended questions
1.Checklists - respondent selects certain number of
pre-specified categories (nominal data)
2. Two-way (Forced Choice) -Respondent must
select between two alternatives (crude ordinal\
nominal) Yes or No type
3. Ranked - respondent must place items in order of
importance or value (ordinal)
4. Multiple-Choice (Likert Scale) – respondent selects
between range of alternatives along pre-specified
continuum (ordinal\interval?)
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
1 2 3 4 5

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Writing good survey questions
• Good Question wording:
– Simple sentences
– No double negatives
– Eliminate vagueness (poorly defined terms)
– Eliminate Objectionable\Irrelevant questions

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• Pilot Testing
– Pre empirical investigation to observe the reliability and
validity of the instrument &
– To modify the items of the instrument accordingly.
• Reliability of the Instrument
– Deals with the extent to which the instrument yields the
same results on repeated trials.
– Reliability refers to the consistency, stability or
equivalence of a number of measurements taken using
the same measurement method on the same subject.
– If repeated measurements are highly consistent (even
identical), then there is a high degree of reliability with the
measurement method.
– If the variations among the repeated measurements are
large, then the reliability of the instrument is low. 35
• Reliability can be estimated and measured in one of
the four ways:
1. Internal consistency,
2. Split-half reliability,
3. Test-retest reliability and
4. Inter-rater reliability
• Internal consistency refers to a mechanism by which
the reliability of an instrument is measured where
the researcher distributes the questionnaire only
once to the respondents.
– Among the different methods of measuring internal
consistency:
• Kuder-Richardson method and
• Cronbach’s coefficient alpha method

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• Cronbach’s coefficient alpha method is the most
commonly used and recommended method of
measuring internal consistency over the other
methods because of its better measuring power

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient Rating

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• Validity of the Instrument
– Validity of an instrument refers to the degree to which a
study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept
that the researcher is attempting to measure through
insuring the data collection instrument’s ability to collect
the intended data fully and appropriately.
– In short, validity is concerned with the study's success at
measuring what the researchers set out to measure and
indicates the extent to which the data collected reflects the
phenomena under investigation.
– There are three forms of validity that can be related to
self-reporting questionnaires
– Content validity
– Construct validty
– Criterion validity

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• Content Validity
– Content validity refers the extent to which a measure or an
instrument adequately represents all facets of a concept in
line with the well known literatures on the topic under
investigation.
– Done with subject experts consultation
• Construct Validity
– Construct validity refers to the degree of confidence that
the information provided by the Instrument reflects the
activities that are being measured.
– Construct validity is assessed by comparing trends or
relationships from data collected via a self-reporting
questionnaire with established trends or relationships that
previous research findings are in clear agreement.

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– Construct validity encompass all forms of validity, which
refers to the extent to which a measure adequately
assesses the construct it purports to assess.
– It indicates that items that are indicators of a specific
construct should converge or share a high proportion of
variance
– In other words, it assesses the degree to which two
measures of the same concept are correlated, with high
correlation indicating that the scale is measuring its
intended concept. Thus reliability is also an indicator of
convergent validity

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