Cell Biology Lec 6

9.
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are vesicles that bud from the Golgi

apparatus and that contain digestive enzymes.
These enzymes can break down large molecules,
such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and
phospholipids.
• Lysosomes range in size from 0.2 to 0.5 μm.
• They are instrumental in intracellular digestion

(autophagy) and the digestion of material from
outside the cell (heterophagy).
.
• Heterophagy, which is involved with the body’s

removal of bacteria, begins with the invagination
of the plasma membrane, a process called
endocytosis.
• In the liver, lysosomes break down glycogen in

order to release glucose into the bloodstream.
• In the metamorphosis of a frog, lysosomal

enzymes help destroy those structures of the
tadpole that are no longer useful in later
developmental stages.
10. Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes except that the
enzymes contained in these organelles are oxidative in
function.
Peroxisomes are named for the hydrogen peroxide,

H2O2, they produce when breaking down alcohol and
killing bacteria.
Peroxisomes are involved in the oxidative deamination

of amino acids, a reaction vital to the conversion of
proteins to other kinds of compounds, which the
mitochondria can then use as an energy source.
Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a network of thin tubes and filaments

that crisscrosses the cytosol.
• The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape, movement of

the cell as a whole, and motility of organelles within a cell.
Cytoskeleton has three main structural components:

-- Microfilaments
-- Intermediate filaments, and
-- Microtubules.
All of these filament systems are composed of proteins that

have the unique property of being able to self-assemble into a
filamentous network.
11. Flagella and cilia
• Flagella and cilia are hair like structures that extend

from the surface of the cell, where they assist in
movement.
• Flagella and cilia may be treated as a single kind of

organelle: if the structures are few in number and
relatively long, they are called flagella, if short and
numerous, they are considered cilia.
• Cilia and flagella have a membrane on their outer

surface and an internal structure of nine pairs of
microtubules around two central tubules.
.
• Some eukaryotic cells have flagella, but they

consist of bundles of microtubules made of
tubulin, and they originate from a basal body in
the cytoplasm.
• The mammalian spermatozoon has a single flagellum.
.
• In mammals, many epithelial cells are ciliated in order

to sweep materials across the tissue surface. For
instance, huge numbers of cilia cover the surfaces of
mammalian respiratory passages (the nose, pharynx,
and trachea).
• The unicellular green alga
Chlamydomonas has two flagella.
• The unicellular protozoan
Paramecium is covered with a
few thousand cilia, which are used
both to move and to bring in food
PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
Prokaryotes,
key points
• prokaryotes are small, single-celled organisms that

have a relatively simple structure.
• Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a plasma

membrane, but they have no internal membrane-
bound organelles within their cytoplasm.
• The absence of a nucleus and other membrane-

bound organelles differentiates prokaryotes from
another class of organisms called eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes are divided into two distinct
groups:
• Bacteria
• Archaea (single-celled organisms)
Bacteria
• Bacteria are organisms that consist of a single cell

without a nucleus.
• But have a region in the cell, termed the nucleoid,
in which a single chromosomal, circular, double-
stranded DNA molecule is located.
• They have distinct structural, physiological and
evolutionary characteristics.
• Bacteria can be classified based on the
composition of the cell wall in terms of the amount
of peptidoglycan present (gram positive and gram
negative bacteria).
• Gram-positive : typically lack the outer membrane
.
found in gram-negative organisms and contain a

large amount of peptidoglycan in the cell wall,
roughly 90%.
• Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell
wall composed of a few layers of peptidoglycan.
The mechanism of Gram staining is based on the

fundamental structural and chemical attributes of
bacterial cell walls.
• The cell walls of gram-positive bacteria have a high
percentage of peptidoglycan (~ 50-90%), and as a
result are stained purple by crystal violet.
• While those of gram-negative bacteria have only a

thin peptidoglycan layer (~ 10%). So, as a result are
stained pink.
Archaea .
• Archaeal membranes have replaced the fatty
acids of bacterial membranes with isoprene; some
archaeal membranes are monolayer rather than
bilayer.
Isoprene Fatty acid

There are four main structures shared by all
prokaryotic cells:
• plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Ribosomes
• Genetic material (DNA and RNA)
Some prokaryotic cells also have other structures

i.e. cell wall, pili and flagella. Each of these
structures and cellular components plays a critical
role in the growth, survival, and reproduction of
prokaryotic cells.
Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane is a thin lipid bilayer that

completely surrounds the cell and separates the inside
from the outside.
• Its selectively-permeable membrane keeps ions, proteins
and other molecules within the cell, preventing them from
diffusing into the extracellular environment, while other
molecules may move through the membrane.
• The general structure of a cell membrane is a phospholipid

bilayer composed of two layers of lipid molecules.
Prokaryotic ribosomes
• Ribosomes are smaller and have a slightly different
shape than those found in eukaryotic cells. It
catalysis the synthesis of proteins.
• Prokaryotic Ribosomes consist of ribosomal RNA

(rRNA) and ribosomal proteins (r-Proteins). Also can
be called Ribonucleoprotein complex.
• composed of two subunits of 50S and 30S, The two

subunits combine during protein synthesis to form a
complete 70S ribosome. [S stands for Svedbergs and
it is the sedimentation coefficient].
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
ribosome
Prokaryotic Ribosome Eukaryotic Ribosome
• Are called 70S ribosomes, • Are called 80S ribosomes,
which are smaller than which are larger than
eukaryotic ribosomes. prokaryotic ribosomes.
• Ribosomes consist of two • Ribosomes consist of two
subunits, and these two subunits, and these two
subunits are called 30S subunits are called 40S
and 50S. and 60S.
• 50s subunit: 23s, 16s and • 60s subunits: 25s, 28, 5.8s
5s rRNA, and 5s rRNA,
30 subunits: 16s rRNA 40s subunits: 18s rRNA
• consists of almost fifty • consists of almost eighty
prokaryotes genetic material
Most prokaryotes carry a small amount of genetic

material in the form of a single molecule, or
chromosome, of circular DNA.
The DNA in prokaryotes is contained in a central
area of the cell called the nucleoid, which is not
surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
.
• Many prokaryotes also carry small, circular DNA

molecules called plasmids, which are distinct from
the chromosomal DNA and can provide genetic
advantages in specific environments.
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
• Nucleus present
• Absent
• They have more than one
• They have only one, but not true
chromosome.
chromosome (plasmid).
• They have nuclear envelop.
• Absent
• Lysosome and peroxisome
• Absent
are present.
• Microtubules are present.
• Absent
• cytoskeletons are present
• Absent
• Mitochondria present.
• Absent
• Ribosomes are large.
• Smaller
• Cell wall present only in plant
• Present
cells and fungi.
• Golgi apparatus are present.

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9.

• Lysosomes are vesicles that bud from the Golgi

• Lysosomes range in size from 0.2 to 0.5 μm.

• They are instrumental in intracellular digestion

• Heterophagy, which is involved with the body’s

• In the liver, lysosomes break down glycogen in

• In the metamorphosis of a frog, lysosomal

Peroxisomes are named for the hydrogen peroxide,

Peroxisomes are involved in the oxidative deamination

• The cytoskeleton is a network of thin tubes and filaments

• The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape, movement of

Cytoskeleton has three main structural components:

All of these filament systems are composed of proteins that

• Flagella and cilia are hair like structures that extend

• Flagella and cilia may be treated as a single kind of

• Cilia and flagella have a membrane on their outer

• Some eukaryotic cells have flagella, but they

• In mammals, many epithelial cells are ciliated in order

• prokaryotes are small, single-celled organisms that

• Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a plasma

• The absence of a nucleus and other membrane-

• Bacteria are organisms that consist of a single cell

found in gram-negative organisms and contain a

The mechanism of Gram staining is based on the

• While those of gram-negative bacteria have only a

Isoprene Fatty acid

Some prokaryotic cells also have other structures

• The plasma membrane is a thin lipid bilayer that

• The general structure of a cell membrane is a phospholipid

• Prokaryotic Ribosomes consist of ribosomal RNA

• composed of two subunits of 50S and 30S, The two

Most prokaryotes carry a small amount of genetic

• Many prokaryotes also carry small, circular DNA

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