Chapter 7 - Programming For AI

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Chapter 7 - Programming For AI

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Department of Computer Sciences

College of Computers & Information Technology

501481-3 Summer 2022

Artificial Intelligence
Chapter 7: Programming for AI
Prolog Basics

1
What is Logic Programming
• Two types of programming languages:
– Imperative languages or procedural languages
(C, C++, VB, C#, Java, …).
– Declarative languages (prolog, lisp, …).

• Logic programming is a type of

programming called declarative
programming.
Imperative or Procedural Languages
• Programmer gives all the steps to solve a problem. He
must know an algorithm to solve the problem.
• Example: find the average of a list of grades:
• Input number; total=0;
• for (i=0; i<number; i++)
{ Input grade;
total=total+grade;
}
• Average = total/number;
• Print Average;
Declarative Languages
• Programmer describes the problem without the
control flow, then the system will solve the
problem.
• Programmer must know the relations between
objects to solve the problem.
• Programmer does not need to know an algorithm
to solve the problem.

• Declarative languages consists of:

– Program or theory.
– Computation which is deduction.
Logic
• Propositional logic:
– Consists of
• statements which have truth value (true or false).
• Compound statements by using connectives (and,
or, not, implies) with statements.
• E.g. (p and q) or (c implies d)
– p = “Ali is a teacher”
– q = “Ali is tall”
– c = “if Ali is an Engineer”
– d = “Ali is good in Math”
First Order Predicate logic
• Propositional logic: No argument in
propositions.
• First order predicate logic represents relation
between objects:
Predicate name
• own(ahmed, car).
• friend(ali, ahmed).
• father(sami, ali).
• First order predicate logic implies a predicate
symbol and set of connectives (and, or, not,
implies).
Prolog
• Prolog is a declarative language based on first
order logic.
• Prolog means Programming in Logic.
• It consists of:
– Facts.
Clause
– Rules.
– Goals.
• Used in AI: expert systems, games, ….
Atoms
• a sequence of alphanumeric characters
• usually starts with a lower case letter
• Or it is a string enclosed in single quotes
• They represent constants.
• Examples:
– ali, salem, a, b, c, a1, a2, b3, c5, …
– ‘Mr. Ali’, ’Dr. Ahmad’
Variables
• A sequence of alphanumeric characters

• Start with an uppercase letter

• Examples:
• X, Y, Z, Parent, Child, X1, Y1, X2, X5, X6,
….
Predicates
• A predicate has the form
– p(t1,...,tn)
– where p is an atom and t1,...,tn are variables or
atoms.
– n is the number of arguments of predicate p (written
as p/n which represents the signature of predicate).
– Predicates can be of 0-arg, 1-arg, 2-arg, …
– It can be either true or false.
• Examples:
– father(ali, ahmed).
Prolog Knowledge Base

• Prolog Program consist of:

– Facts: asserts a property to an object, or relation
between two or more objects:
• parent(ali, salem).
• own(ali, car).
– Rules: allow to infer a relationship or a property
based on a precondition:
• brother(X,Y) :- father(F,X), father(F,Y).
– Goal: Query or questions asked by user.
• parent(ali, Y).
Goals
• A goal is a conjunction of predicates
– p(X,Y), q(Y,Z), t(Z,W).

– A goal is the question or query asked by the

user. Prolog will try to find an answer for the
goal.
Answers
• Given a goal, Prolog searches for
answer(s):
– “yes” (possibly with answer substitution)
– “no” (if no answer or no more answer found).
– Substitutions are bindings of variables that
make the goal true.
PROLOG Examples

14
Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.