1

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH

THE MOST BENEFICIENT, THE MOST
MERCIFUL
Classification of Top Down Parsers

 Parsing is classified into two categories, i.e. Top Down Parsing and Bottom-Up
Parsing. Top-Down Parsing is based on Left Most Derivation whereas Bottom Up
Parsing is based on Right Most Derivation.
Classification of Top Down Parsers

 the process of constructing the parse tree which starts from the root and goes
down to the leaf is Top-Down Parsing.
 Top Down Parsers uses leftmost derivation to construct a parse tree.
Classification of Top Down Parsers

 With Backtracking: Recursive Descent Parsing

 Without Backtracking: Predictive Parsing or LL(1) Parsing or Table Driven

Parsing
Recursive Descent Parsing

 Recursive descent is a top-down parsing technique that constructs the parse tree
from the top and the input is read from left to right. This parsing technique
recursively parses the input to make a parse tree.
 This parsing technique is regarded recursive as it uses context-free grammar
which is recursive in nature.
Recursive Descent Parsing

 It is general parsing technique, but not widely used as it is not efficient(slower).

 It involves backtracking(if choice of a production rule does not work, we
backtrack to try other alternatives).
Recursive Descent Parsing

 go with the first alternative and compare with the given String
 If matching doesn’t occur then go with the second alternative and compare with
the given String.
 If matching again not found then go with the alternative and so on.
 Moreover, If matching occurs for at least one alternative, then the string is parsed
successfully.
LL(1) or Table Driven or Predictive
Parser –
 A form of recursive-descent parsing that does not require any back-tracking is
known as predictive parsing.
 It is efficient.
 It needs special form of grammar called LL(1) grammar.
 Non recursive (table driven) predictive parser is also known as LL(1)
 Parser.
LL(1) or Table Driver or Predictive
Parser –
 In LL1, first L stands for Left to Right and second L stands for Left-most
Derivation. 1 stands for number of Look Aheads token used by parser while
parsing a sentence.
 LL(1) parsing is constructed from the grammar which is free from left recursion
and ambiguity.
Recursion-

 Recursion can be classified into following three types-

 Left Recursion
 Right Recursion
 General Recursion

Right Recursion-

 A production of grammar is said to have right recursion if the rightmost variable

of its RHS is same as variable of its LHS.
 A grammar containing a production having right recursion is called as Right
Recursive Grammar.

Left Recursion-

 A production of grammar is said to have left recursion if the leftmost variable of

its RHS is same as variable of its LHS.
 A grammar containing a production having left recursion is called as Left
Recursive Grammar.

Left Recursion-

 Example-

 S → Sa / ∈
 (Left Recursive Grammar)


 Left recursion is considered to be a problematic situation for Top down parsers.

 Therefore, left recursion has to be eliminated from the grammar.

Types of grammar

 On the basis of number of strings, grammars are classified as-

Recursive Grammar-

 A grammar is said to be recursive if it contains at least one production that has the
same variable at both its LHS and RHS.
 OR
 A grammar is said to be recursive if and only if it generates infinite number of
strings.


 A recursive grammar may be either-

 Left recursive grammar
 Right recursive grammar
Left Recursive Grammar-

 A recursive grammar is said to be left recursive if the leftmost variable of RHS is

same as variable of LHS.
 OR
 A recursive grammar is said to be left recursive if it has Left Recursion.


 Example-


 S → Sa / b
 (Left Recursive Grammar)
Right Recursive Grammar-

 A recursive grammar is said to be right recursive if the rightmost variable of RHS

is same as variable of LHS.
 OR
 A recursive grammar is said to be right recursive if it has right recursion.


 Example-


 S → aS / b
 (Right Recursive Grammar)
Non-Recursive Grammar-

 A grammar is said to be non-recursive if it contains no production that has the

same variable at both its LHS and RHS.
 OR
 A grammar is said to be non-recursive if and only if it generates finite number of
strings.
 A non-recursive grammar has neither left recursion nor right recursion.
Non-Recursive Grammar-

 Example-


 S → aA / bB
 A→a/b
 B→c/d
 (Non-Recursive Grammar)


 The language generated from this grammar is L = { aa , ab , bc , bd }

 Since the grammar generates finite number of strings, therefore it is a non-
recursive grammar.
Indirect Left Recursion

 A grammar is said to have indirect left recursion if, starting from any symbol of the
grammar, it is possible to derive a string whose head is that symbol.
 For example,

 A→Bα
 B→Aγ
 or
 A --> Br
 B --> Cd
 C --> A
 Where A, B, C are non-terminals and r, d, t are terminals.
Here, starting with A, we can derive A again on substituting C to B and B to A.
Left Recursion

 Example:
 (1) A => Aα | β


 (2) S => Aα | β
 A => Sd
Ambiguous grammar

 The grammar which is both left recursive and right recursive is always
ambiguous.
 Example-
 E → E + E / E – E / E x E / id
 (Ambiguous Grammar)
Ambiguous grammar

 This kind of grammar is not suitable for Top down parsers.

 Top down parsers can not decide which production must be chosen to parse the
string.
Problem with Left Recursion:

 If a left recursion is present in any grammar then, during compilation there is a

chance that the grammar will create infinite loop.
 when the parser encounters the same non-terminal in its derivation, it becomes
hard for it to judge when to stop parsing the left non-terminal and it goes into an
infinite loop.
Problem with Left Recursion:

 To avoid this situation, it is converted into its equivalent right recursive grammar.
 This is done by eliminating left recursion from the left recursive grammar.
 To remove left recursion , we use left factoring.
Left Factoring-

 Left factoring is a process by which the grammar is transformed to make it useful

for Top down parsers.
 it is a grammar transformation technique called Elimination of left recursion,
which provides a method to generate, given a left recursive grammar into another
grammar that is equivalent and is not left recursive.
Left Factoring-

 In left factoring,
 We make one production for each common prefixes.
 The common prefix may be a terminal or a non-terminal or a combination of both.
 Rest of the derivation is added by new productions.

Left Factoring-

 the grammar obtained after the process of left factoring is called as Left Factored
Grammar.


 Example-



Left Factoring-

 Left Factoring is a grammar transformation technique. It consists in "factoring

out" prefixes which are common to two or more productions.
 For example, going from:
 A→αβ|αγ
 to:
 A → α A'
 A' → β | γ
Elimination of Left Recursion

 Left recursion is eliminated by converting the grammar into a right recursive grammar.
 If we have the left-recursive pair of productions-
 A → Aα / β
 (Left Recursive Grammar)
 where β does not begin with an A.


 Then, we can eliminate left recursion by replacing the pair of productions with-
 A → βA’
 A’ → αA’ / ∈
 (Right Recursive Grammar)
 This right recursive grammar functions same as left recursive grammar.
THANK
YOU