ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

UNDERSTANDING HORMONES
◼ The chemicals secreted by endocrine glands are known as hormones.
◼ The word hormone is derived from the Greek word "hormacin" which means to
excite.
◼ These are those chemicals that are secreted directly into the bloodstream by certain
specialized cells. These chemicals travel in the body and bring about the physiological
changes inside the body.
◼ The hormones can be classified as tropic hormones (tropic means able to stimulate or
change something), when they have to perform a more generalized function.
◼ Tropic hormones act on other endocrine glands and stimulate them to secrete their
hormones.
◼ Hormones can also be classified according to their chemical structure as steroids and
non-steroids or protein hormones.
◼ The steroid hormones are made up of cholesterol (a type of fat molecule) and secreted from
gonads (testes and ovaries) or adrenal cortex,. Non-steroid hormones are amino acids, peptides
or complete proteins. An example is epinephrine.
◼ Among both the categories, steroid hormones have a long-lasting impact on cellular functioning.
◼ The secretion of hormones is controlled by a negative feedback loop that tends to reverse any
deviation from the set point value that maintains homeostasis.
◼ For example, when parathyroid hormone stimulates its target cells, it produces more calcium in
the blood.
◼ However, when the level of calcium exceeds the set point value, this information is received by
the parathyroid cells and they automatically reduce the secretion of parathyroid hormone.
◼ The information received from the nervous system also stimulates the glands to secrete their
hormones.
FUNCTIONS OF THE HORMONES
◼ We must understand that hormones are not involved in any biological processes. Rather
they tend to regulate the processes that are already going on in the body.
◼ They are produced in response to the changing internal bodily environment.
◼ Hormones act very slowly on the body. Various environmental or internal factors influence
the release of hormones such that a reciprocal relationship exists between them.
◼ Hormones can be produced in varying amounts and can influence different tissues, organs
and ultimately behavior.
◼ There are varying time periods during which the hormones work. For example, some are
secreted regularly in 24 hours while some follow the lunar or 28-day cycle, others are
secreted according to the demands of the body in response to internal or external stimuli.
◼ Hormones are involved as catalysts in metabolic processes in some cells. Each hormone
has a specific effect.
◼ Hormones also influence the action of other hormones.
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
◼ Pituitary Gland:
Structure: Pituitary gland is also referred as the master gland
because it controls other glands and as well as other organs of the
body.
Most of its hormones are tropic hormones.
The pituitary gland is a small structure weighing about 0.5 gms. It
comes from the Latin word "pituita". It is located at the base of
the skull, attached to the hypothalamus.
Another name for it is hypophysis. It has s small stalk known as
infundibulum that connects it to the hypothalamus in the brain.
It has two distinct glands, the anterior pituitary gland, and the,
posterior pituitary gland, formed during embryonic development.
Each gland secretes its own hormones which differ in functions.
◼ Anterior (Adenohypophysis Pituitary):
The anterior part of pituitary gland is known as adenohypophysis. It is
composed of glandular tissues.
The hypothalamus regulates the secretions of the adenohypophysis.
Hence, even though pituitary gland is known as the master gland, it is
controlled by the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus secretes hormones into the hypothalamus-pituitary
portal system and regulates the hormone secretion through the
negative feedback mechanisms.
MAIN SECRETIONS OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY, ALTHOUGH THE RELEASE IS
CONTROLLED BY HYPOTHALAMUS, ARE:

1) Adrenocoticotropic hormone (ACTH): This controls the release of hormones of the adrenal
cortex which releases steroid hormones. ACTH promotes and maintains growth and
development of the cortex of the adrenal gland.
2) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): This stimulates the production of melanocytes in
the skin which tends to darken the skin.
3) Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH): Promotes the growth and development of thyroid gland
and release of thyroid hormones known as thyroxin.
4) Luteinizing stimulating hormone (LH): It stimulates the formation and activity of the corpus
luteum of ovary. It stimulates the release of eggs from the ovary in females and prepares the
uterine lining for the implantation of a fertilized egg. It increases the production of progesterone
in females, while in males it stimulates interstitial cell to produce testosterone.
5) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the secretion of estrogen and maturation
of ovum in females and sperm production in males. It influences the growth and maintenance of
the gonads (ovaries and testes).
6) Prolactin (PRL): It is also called as the lactogenic hormone as it initiates and promotes
milk production in female mammals. It also helps to maintain the corpus luteum of the
ovary during the menstrual cycle. Hypersecretion of PRL may cause non-nursing women to
lactate and also disrupt the menstrual cycle. It can also cause impotence in men.
Hyposecretion of PRL is generally of no significance.
7) Growth Hormone (GH): This hormone is also known as somatotropin hormone (STH) or
somatotropic hormone. It influences the growth of cells and tissues all over the body. GH is
released during some stages of sleep. It promotes the growth of bones, muscles and other
tissues. Thus, it controls and regulates the growth ofa child from infancy to adulthood.
During growing years, hypersecretion of GHcauses an extraordinary skeletal growth
producing a condition known as gigantism.This also causes the formation of new bones
making the body disfigured with largehands, feet, jaw etc. This is known as acromegaly. If
during growing years theGH is secreted in quantity that is less than what is desired, or
hyposecreted itresults in reduced cell growth of the body leading to dwarfism.
◼ The Posterior Pituitary (Neuro hypophysis) The posterior pituitary is composed of neural tissue. The main
hormones released are Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin and Oxytocin.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) ADH, also known as vasopressin, helps the body to retain water and regulatessodium
level in the blood. In other words, it prevents the loss of water from the bodythrough large urine volume.
It helps the tubules of the kidney to reabsorb water fromthe excess amounts of urine that is formed to be
excreted.
The osmotic pressure inthe body increases when the body dehydrates.
This triggers the release of ADH, which in turn helps to reabsorb the water from the kidney and pour it into the
blood.This restores the water level in the body and reduces the osmotic pressure.
Thehyposecretion of ADH causes the excretion of large quantity of urine from the body, thus leading to diabetes
insipidus.
This is generally taken care of by injecting ADHor vasopressin. ADH is also involved in learning and memory
though, the exact roleis yet to be understood.
Vasopressin and Oxytocin The word is derived from Greek words, oxys
meaning 'rapid' and tokos that means 'childbirth’.
Oxytocin (OT) initiates the contraction of uterine muscles. Injections of
OT are given to induce labour and to speed-up childbirth.
It also promotes lactation and ensures successful nursing. It also
controls certain aspects of parental behaviour and sexual behavior.
Research is being conducted to find out the impact of oxytocin and
vasopressin on social behavior
◼ Adrenal Gland
Structure: The adrenal glands are placed like a cover on top of each kidney.
Renal is a Latin word that means 'kidney' and ad is a Latin word for 'to',
which means to or on the kidney.
They have two parts, the outer covering which is the major part of the gland
is known as adrenal cortex and is made up of endocrine tissue.
The inner part of the gland known as adrenal medulla is made up of
neurosecretory tissue.
30 different hormones are secreted to regulate salt intake, deal with stress
and also influences sexual changes during adolescence (along with gonads).
◼ Adrenal Cortex Adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids as mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids and gonado corticoids.
1. Mineralocorticoid
Mineralocorticoids regulate the processing of mineral salts (electrolytes) in the body.
For example, aldosterone helps in the maintenance of sodium balance in the body
by reabsorbing it from the kidney. This also leads to reabsorbing water in the body.
II. Glucocorticoids
The main glucocorticoid released by the adrenal cortex is known as cortisol.
Glucocorticoids speed up the breakdown of proteins into amino acids.
In liver, the amino acids are converted into glucose. Glucocorticoids are necessary to
maintain normal blood pressure and working of the epinephrine and nor-
epinephrine
If there is excess of glucocorticoids in the blood, it tends to initiate tissue loss or protein loss and
causes hyperglycaemia, when there is high level of blood glucose in the body.
Glucocorticoids help in the mobilization of lipids. High concentration of glucocorticoids also
causes a decrease in white blood cells, which reduces the formation of antibodies in the body.
Hence, glucocorticoids help the body to cope with physical and psychological stress.

III) Gonadocorticoids
The sex hormones released by the adrenal cortex are known as gonadocorticoids. Under normal
conditions, adrenal cortex releases both male hormones androgen and female hormone
estrogen.
But the quantity in which they are released is very small, so they do not produce any significant
effects. That is, the level of androgens in females may only lead to the production of body hair
but not produce any masculine characteristics.
◼ Adrenal Medulla The hormones secreted by adrenal medulla are known as.
catecholamines . They are non-steroid hormones.
Adrenalin or epinephrine is the major hormone secreted. The other hormone secreted is
noradrenalin or norepinephrine.
Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine help to maintain the balance in the body (when people are
under stress) by increasing their effects on the sympathetic system.
When the cortical hormones are hyper secreted it leads to Cushing's Syndrome. The fat gets
deposited in the face, abdomen, shoulders instead of arms and legs. Face appears to be
moon shaped.
Hypersecretion of aldosterone causes aldosteronism which causes water retention in the
body and loss of potassium causing muscle weakness.
When there is hypersecretion of androgens, the level of male hormones in the blood
increases in women. This causes male characteristics in women.
Hyposecretion of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids causes an increase in bloodglucose
and potassium levels, dehydration, weight loss, causing Addison's disease.Sometimes
ointments containing hydrocortisone are used to treat symptoms of skinallergies.
◼ Thyroid Gland
Structure: The thyroid gland is made up of two lobes that are connected by an
isthmus in the neck region. It weighs about 30 gms in an average adult. The
gland has follicles which are filled with thyroid fluid. It secretes hormones as
calcitonin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine (T3).
Functions: Thyroid hormone regulates gene expression, metabolic processes,
cell growth and tissue differentiation.
The secretion of thyroxin depends upon the temperature of the environment.
When it is cold then the secretion of thyroxin increases while when it is warm it
reduces.
Hypersecretion of thyroid hormone or hyperthyroidism produces a disease
known as Graves' disease. This causes eyes to protrude, increased excitability,
difficulty in sleeping, and inability to focus on a task.
This condition may also cause lot of weight loss, nervousness, and enhanced
heart beat. This condition can be taken care of by surgically removing a part of
the gland so as to reduce the production of thyroxin.
◼ During growing years when there is deficiency of thyroxin i.e., hyposecretion in the body it
causes a condition known as cretinism.
◼ Cretins suffer from low metabolic rate, CNS and other systems of the body are maldeveloped,
with retarded growth. In severe conditions it leads to dwarfism.
◼ If hypothyroidism is detected early, then it can be rectified by injecting extra thyroxin and
cretinism can be avoided.
◼ However, in adulthood, hypothyroidism causes myxedema. In myxedema, the metabolic rate
reduces, mental and physical vigor also decreases, skin becomes yellowish, and there is gain in
weight.
◼ When the level of iodine in the body is not sufficient, then there is a reduction in the release of
thyroid hormones. This causes a swelling in the neck producing a condition known as goitre.
◼ This is very common in mountain areas where the diet lacks sufficient amount of iodine.
Calcitonin is another hormone secreted by the thyroid gland. It controls the calcium content of
the blood by increasing the formation of bones.
◼ Parathyroid Gland
Structure: Parathyroid glands lie above the thyroid gland. They are four of them and
are round in shape. They secrete a hormone known as parathyroid hormone (PTH) or
parathormone.
Functions: Parathormone regulates calcium, phosphorous and vitamin D in the blood.
It works opposite to calcitonin. It regulates calcium homeostasis by acting on
bloodstream and maintains an optimal level of calcium in the body.
This then facilitates the functions of neurons, skeletal muscles and acts on the bone,
kidney and intestinal cells. When the level of calcium is low in the blood, parathyroid
gland secretes parathormone which helps to increase the blood calcium.
When the optimal level of calcium is reached, then parathormone is not produced by
the gland. When the level of calcium drops, then the same cycle starts again.
Parathyroid hormone activates Vitamin D in the body which helps in absorbing calcium that is
available in the food we eat. There are many sources of Vitamin D, such as from the food we
eat, or by exposing our skin to the sunlight which is in abundance in tropical countries, like
India.
The interaction between parathyroid hormone and calcium is important for healthy survival,
neuro-muscular action, clotting of the blood, and permeability of the cell membrane.
Hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone causes hypocalcemia which produces irritability,
muscle spasms and convulsions. In childhood, if there is an extreme deficiency of Vitamin D,
then the calcium becomes very low. This causes rickets, a condition when bones begin to
degenerate.
On the other hand, when parathyroid hormone is produced in excess of what is required, that
is there is hypersecretion, then it leads to too much calcium in the blood which causes a bone
disease known as osteitis fibrosa cystica.
◼ Pineal Gland (Epiphysis)
Structure: Pineal gland is a very small structure and is in shape of a cone. It is placed on
top of the brain stem. This gland is not a paired gland like other glands.
Function: The hormone released by pineal gland is known as melatonin.
This regulates the biological clock of the body which controls our sleeping, waking,
eating, reproductive cycle (menstrual cycle and onset of puberty) in women and
behavior. Pineal gland does not secrete melatonin in sunlight, this tends to influence a
persons' mood. It keeps track of length of days and seasons.
For example, in seasonal affective disorder (SAD), patient suffers from severe
depression during winters.
As days are small in winters, so there is less daylight, and as a result reduction in the
production of melatonin. When there is jet lag, then melatonin is also used to treat it.
◼ Pancreas
Structure: Pancreas lies near the stomach and the small intestine. It is a long gland,
about 12 cms long and weighs about 100 gms. It is made up of small cells known as
islets of langerhans. These cells are joined together by gap junctions. There are
different kinds of pancreatic cells. The A cell or alpha cells secrete the hormone
glucagon, the Beta cells (B cells) produce insulin and Delta cells (D cells) secrete
somatostatin. The pancreatic polypeptide cells (F, or PP cells) secrete pancreatic
polypeptide.
Function: Alpha cells produce glucagon which converts the glycogen into glucose in the
blood.
It thus increases the blood glucose level. Somatostatin, that is produced by the delta
cells regulates some cells of the pancreatic islets, inhibits the secretion of growth
hormone, glucagon, insulin and pancreatic polypeptide.
◼ The beta cells produce insulin which helps to lower the blood glucose level and promotes metabolism. When
an inadequate or abnormally low level of insulin is produced, it causes diabetes.
◼ In hyperglycemia, glucose is unable to enter the cells normally this increases the level of glucose in the blood.
Under normal conditions the tubules of the kidney reabsorb the glucose from the blood but when the bold
glucose level is too high then the tubules are unable to reabsorb the excessive glucose.
◼ This produces a condition known as glycosuria and extra sugar is released out through urine. This may cause a
condition where the frequency of urine production increases, that is polyuria.
◼ This happens because the body needs more water to throw out the excess glucose. When too much water is
excreted, the body becomes dehydrated, and the person feels very thirsty all the time.
◼ This condition is known as polydipsia. When the blood sugar level is high, the body also feels hungrier, a
condition known as polyphagia.
◼ Another name for diabetes is diabetes mellitus. When diabetes is not treated properly it may cause a
condition known as diabetic ketoacidosis which leads to pain in the abdomen, nausea, coma and if not treated
then it can also lead to death. Hereditary factors play a key role in the development of diabetes mellitus.
◼ Type I diabetes mellitus is a serious disorder that occurs early in adolescence about 11
to 13 years. Since beta cells are destroyed, there is deficiency in insulin. This increases
blood glucose level and body dehydrates. This effects the kidneys, eyes and there is
reduced functioning of the peripheral nerves (Powell, 1987). The patient has to take
injections of insulin to prevent ketosis and control hyper glycemia. About 10% of the
diabetics suffer from this disorder.
◼ Type II diabetes mellitus is little is less serious form of diabetes that occurs after the
age 40. The insulin produced by the body is adequate but somehow it is not able to
maintain the blood glucose level. The treatment involves changes in eating behaviors,
diet and regular exercise. About 90% of all diabetics suffer from this disorder. Gain in
body weight makes one susceptible to it.
◼ If diabetes is left untreated then it may cause heart attack, decreased blood circulation
to the extremities causing tingling sensation, problems in vision and kidney disease
◼ Gonads
Structure: The primary sex organs are gonads. In males, they are testes and in females they are ovaries.
Both have different structure and produce their own hormones. Testes are paired organs having a sac
called as scrotum.
It produces hormones known as testosterone and androgens. Ovaries are also a pair of glands that are
located in the pelvis of a female.
They produce sex hormones as estrogens and progestins.
Functions:
The hormones secreted by gonads regulate sexual behavior and reproduction, along with the brain.
Testosterone is involved in making physical changes during puberty as changes in voice, growth of
facial hair, chest and pubic hair, promotes sperm production and male sexual characteristics.
Estrogens are responsible for the sexual development of the female body such as shape of the body,
development of the breast, and female reproductive cycle. Progesterone is secreted during pregnancy
and helps in it.
Thank You!