Communicating over the

Network
Objective

Describe the structure of a network, including the devices

and media that are necessary for successful
communications.
Explain the function of protocols in network communications.
Explain the advantages of using a layered model to describe
network functionality.
Describe the role of each layer in two recognized network
models: The TCP/IP model and the OSI model.
Describe the importance of addressing and naming schemes
in network communications
Elements of Communication
Communicating the Message
Components of A Network
End-Systems and Their Roles in a Network

Logical Topology Diagram

Intermediate-Systems and Their Roles in a Network

Logical Topology Diagram

Network Media

Logical Topology Diagram

Network Scope
Local Area Network

Logical Topology Diagram

Wide Area Network

Logical Topology Diagram

 Lab
Viewing Internetworks using Tracert or Traceroute
Protocols
Networking concepts

•Networking is the interconnection of

Hosts, NICs and other Network devices.

•All devices must speak the same

language
Protocol:
is the rules that governs the data format
and data exchange.
•In order for data packet to travel from
a source to a destination on a network,
two adjacent layers on two
communicating device must use
common data communication rule

Peer –to –peer communication

Using layer N protocol

Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Transport layer

The primary duties of the transport layer, Layer 4 of the OSI

model, are to transport and regulate the flow of information
from the source to the destination, reliably and accurately.
How?
 It segment and reassemble several upper-layer
applications onto the same transport layer data stream.
 It establishes a logical connection between the
endpoints of the network (Data stream)
It provide
 end-to-end control using sliding windows and
 provide reliability in sequencing numbers and
acknowledgments.
Transport layer (cont’d)

Transport services include the following basic services:

 Segmentation of upper-layer application data
 Establishment of end-to-end operations
 Transport of segments from one end host to another end
host
 Flow control provided by sliding windows
 Reliability provided by sequence numbers and
acknowledgments
Transport layer (cont’d)

Connection Oriented Communication

 One function of the transport layer is to establish a connection-
oriented session between similar devices at the application
layer. For data transfer to begin, both the sending and
receiving applications inform the respective operating
systems(Kernel) that a connection will be initiated
1. Establishing Virtual Circuit
 connection establishment before data transfer begins
 Synchronization is done through an exchange of connection
establishing segments that carry a control bit called SYN
 The synchronization requires each side to send its own initial
sequence number and to receive a confirmation of exchange in
an acknowledgment (ACK) from the other side
Transport layer
Transport layer

2. Windowing
The TCP receive window size is the amount of receive data
(in bytes) that can be buffered at one time on a connection.
The sending host can send only that amount of data before
waiting for an acknowledgment and window update from the
receiving host.
the maximum segment size and window sizing is negotiated
during connection setup
Windowing is a flow-control mechanism
Buffering
Congestion Avoidance
Transport layer
Transport layer

3. Acknowledgment
TCP provides sequencing of segments with a forward
reference acknowledgment. Each datagram is numbered
before transmission. (Expectation Ack)

•At the receiving station, TCP reassembles the segments

into a complete message. If a sequence number is missing
in the series, that segment is retransmitted (Selective
Acknowledgment).

•Segments that are not acknowledged within a given time

period will result in a retransmission (Delay
Acknowledgment).
Transport layer
Routing
Routed
Layer 2 Bridging

Since Ethernet is a shared media, the addition of more

nodes
–increases the demands on the available
bandwidth
–increases probability of collisions,
–resulting in more retransmissions

A solution to the problem is to break the large segment

into parts and separate it into isolated collision
domains

By using bridges and switches, the collision domain is

effectively broken up into smaller parts, each becoming
its own collision domain.
Layer 2 Bridging
Layer 2 Broadcast

•When a node needs to communicate with all hosts on the

network, it sends a broadcast frame with a destination MAC
address 0xFFFFFFFFFFFF. This is an address to which the
network interface card (NIC) of every host must respond.

•Layer 2 devices must flood all broadcast and multicast traffic

The circulation of broadcast radiation can saturate the
network so that there is no bandwidth left for application data.
In this case, new network connections cannot be established.
Because the NIC must interrupt the CPU to process each
broadcast or multicast group it belongs to, broadcast radiation
affects the performance of hosts in the network
Broadcasts have to be controlled at Layer 3
Layer 2 Broadcast

•When a node needs to communicate with all hosts on the

network, it sends a broadcast frame with a destination MAC
address 0xFFFFFFFFFFFF. This is an address to which the
network interface card (NIC) of every host must respond.

•Layer 2 devices must flood all broadcast and multicast traffic

The circulation of broadcast radiation can saturate the
network so that there is no bandwidth left for application data.
In this case, new network connections cannot be established.
Because the NIC must interrupt the CPU to process each
broadcast or multicast group it belongs to, broadcast radiation
affects the performance of hosts in the network
Broadcasts have to be controlled at Layer 3 (BroadCast
Segmentation)
Data Flow through a Network
Now, the same protocol that transported data at 3 Mbps in
1973 is carrying data at 10 Gbps.
The success of Ethernet is due to the following factors:
 Simplicity and ease of maintenance
 Ability to incorporate new technologies
 Reliability
 Low cost of installation and upgrade

The first Ethernet standard (Ethernet II)was published in

1980 by a consortium of Digital Equipment Company,
Intel, and Xerox (DIX).
Ethernet

In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE) standards committee for Local and Metropolitan
Networks published standards for LANs. These standards
start with the number 802. The standard for Ethernet is
802.3.
In 1995, IEEE announced a standard for a 100-Mbps
Ethernet
This was followed by standards for gigabit per second
(Gbps, 1 billion bits per second) Ethernet in 1998 and 1999.

The original Ethernet standard has been amended a

number of times in order to manage new transmission
media and higher transmission rates. These amendments
provide standards for the emerging technologies and
maintain compatibility between Ethernet variations
Ethernet

Ethernet is not one networking technology, but a family of

networking technologies that includes Legacy, Fast
Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. Ethernet speeds can be 10,
100, 1000, or 10,000 Mbps
Ethernet relies on baseband signaling, which uses the entire
bandwidth of the transmission medium.
Ethernet naming rule consists of:
 A number indicating the number of Mbps transmitted.
 The word base, indicating that baseband signaling is
used.
 One or more letters of the alphabet indicating the type of
medium used (F= fiber optical cable, T = copper
unshielded twisted pair).
Ethernet

Ethernet operates in two areas of the OSI model, the lower

half of the data link layer, known as the MAC sublayer and
the physical layer
Ethernet

Data link sublayers contribute significantly to technology

compatibility and computer communication. The MAC
sublayer is concerned with the physical components that will
be used to communicate the information.

To allow for local delivery of frames on the Ethernet, there

must be an addressing system, a way of uniquely identifying
computers and interfaces. Ethernet uses MAC addresses
that are 48 bits in length and expressed as twelve
hexadecimal digits. The first six hexadecimal digits, which
are administered by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer or
vendor. This portion of the MAC address is known as the
Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI). The remaining six
hexadecimal digits represent the interface serial number, or
another value administered by the specific equipment
manufacturer
Ethernet Frame Fields
IP Addressing

For any two systems to communicate, they must be able to

identify and locate each other. While these addresses are
not actual network addresses, they represent and show the
concept of address grouping. This uses the A or B to
identify the network and the number sequence to identify
the individual host.
IP Addressing

This address, operating at Layer 3, allows one computer to locate

another computer on a network. All computers also have a unique
physical address, known as a MAC address. These are assigned
by the manufacturer of the network interface card. MAC addresses
operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model
An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s. To make the IP
address easier to use, the address is usually written as four
decimal numbers separated by periods. For example, an IP
address of one computer is 192.168.1.2. This way of writing the
address is called the dotted

Every IP address has two parts. One part identifies the network
where the system is connected, and a second part identifies that
particular system on the network. As is shown Figure , each octet
ranges from 0 to 255
This number must be a unique number, because duplicate
addresses would make routing impossible
IP Addressing

IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium,

and small networks. Class A addresses are assigned to larger
networks. Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks,
and Class C for small networks. The first step in determining
which part of the address identifies the network and which part
identifies the host is identifying the class of an IP address
Address Class Prefixes
Reserved IP Addresses

Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to

devices on a network. These reserved host addresses include the
following:
 Network address – Used to identify the network itself The only
time the host numbers matter is when the data is on the local
area network.
 Broadcast address – Used for broadcasting packets to all the
devices on a network. Data that is sent to the broadcast
address will be read by all hosts on that network
Public and Private IP addresses

Public IP addresses are unique. No two machines that connect to a

public network can have the same IP address because public IP
addresses are global.
With the rapid growth of the Internet, public IP addresses were
beginning to run out.
To address IPV4 addressing crises, IETF defined and released
different standards. Such as
 CIDR, IPV6, Private addresses and NAT
 RFC 1918 sets aside three blocks of IP addresses for private,
internal use. These three blocks consist of one Class A, a
range of Class B addresses, and a range of Class C
addresses. Addresses that fall within these ranges are not
routed on the Internet backbone. Internet routers immediately
discard private addresses
Private IP addresses