ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
1.1 Introduction to environmental engineering role of environmental
engineers-enhancing natural purification processes in an engineered
environment-public health perspective for treating water and waste water
1.2 Water quantity estimation:
Population forecast-water demand estimation- types of demand-demand
Fluctuation
1.3 Estimation for waste water quantity:
Dry weather flow and storm water flow- population equivalent-design period
1.4 Collection and conveyance:
Water intake structures -gravity flow and pressure flow systems
Systems of sewerage: separate and combined - types of pumps for water and
waste water conveyance
WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING?
 Environmental engineering is a profession that applies mathematics and science to
utilize the properties of matter and sources of energy in the solution of problems of
environmental sanitation .These include
 the provision of safe, palatable, and ample public water supplies
 the proper disposal of or recycle of wastewater and solid wastes
 the adequate drainage of urban and rural areas for proper sanitation
 the control of water, soil, and atmospheric pollution, and the social and environmental
impact of these solutions
 Furthermore it is concerned with engineering problems in the field of public health,
such as control of arthropod borne diseases, the elimination of industrial health hazards,
and the provision of adequate sanitation in urban, rural, and recreational areas, and the
effect of technological advances on the environment (ASCE 1973 1977).
ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS
 Environmental engineering has a profound impact on our day-to-day
lives.It helps us get safe drinking water, reduce water pollution, and
facilitate proper waste disposal.
 Water treatment and purification
 Solid waste management
 Environmental impact assessment
 Air pollution management
 Environment engineers deals with the structures, equipments,
systems that are designed to protect & enhance the quality of the
environment and to protect and enhance the public health and
welfare.
The main role of environmental engineering:

1. Sustainably supply food, water, and energy

2. Curb climate change and adapt to its impacts
3. Design a future without pollution and waste
4. Create efficient, healthy, resilient cities
5. Foster informed decisions and actions
Public health perspective for treating water and
waste water:
 Safe and readily available water is important for public health
 Water supply, sanitation and health are closely related.
 Inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene account for a large part of
the burden of illness and death in developing countries.
 Water and wastewater treatment consists of a combination of
processes used in steps to remove, kill, or "inactivate" a large portion
of the pollutants and disease-causing organisms in water.
 wastewater treatment is essential for protecting water quality, it is
only one barrier against disease. Additional treatment is usually
needed to ensure that water is safe to drink.
1.2 Water quantity estimation:
Population forecast-
water demand estimation-
types of demand-
demand Fluctuation
 WATER DEMAND
• To design a water supply scheme for a particular
community, first of all, the amount of
water available and amount of water
demanded by public is to be evaluated
for which the water supply scheme has to be
designed
 Water consumption rate (Per capita demand in
litres per day per head)
 Population to be served
Quantity = Per capita demand * Population
While designing a water supply scheme the following
quantities are assessed:
 Total annual volume (V) in litres or million litres
 Annual average rate of draft in litres per day
(V/365)
 Annual average rate of draft in litres per day per
capita
person(Litres per capita per day or lpcd), called per
 demand
Average rate of draft in litres per day per service
𝑉 1
X
365 𝑁𝑜:𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
 Fluctuations in flows expressed in terms of
percentage ratios of max or min yearly, monthly,
daily or hourly rates to their corresponding
average values
 TYPES OF WATER DEMAND
• Domestic water demand
• Industrial water demand
• Institution and commercial water demand
• Demand r public use
• fo
Fire demand
• Water required to compensate losses in wastes
and thefts
 DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND
• Water required in residential buildings for drinking,
cooking, bathing, lawn sprinkling, gardening, sanitary
purposes etc
• Amount of domestic water consumption per person shall
vary according to the living conditions of consumers
• Minimum domestic consumption for a town or city
full
withflushing system should be taken as 200 l/h/d, while it
will be 135 l/h/d for weaker sections in small Indian towns
and cities
• Total domestic water consumption usually amounts to 50 –
60% of total water consumption
• Total domestic water demand = Total design
population multiplied by per capita domestic consumption
 INDUSTRIAL WATER DEMAND
• Water demand for existing industries or that are likely to
be started in future
• This quantity thus vary with the number and type
of industries present in the city
• Ordinary per capita consumption on account of industrial
needs of a city is generally taken as 50 litres per person
per day which may suffice only to meet water demand of
small scattered industries
• Separate provisions will have to be made to meet
the water demand ofsuch specific industries
• In industrial cities per capita water requirement
may finally be computed to be as high as 450
l/person/day
 Institutional and Commercial Water Demand
• Water requirement of institutions, such as hospitals,
hotels, restaurants, schools and colleges, railway
stations, offices, factories etc
• Quantity will vary with the nature of the city and with
the number and types of commercial establishments and

• On an average. A per capita demand of 20 litres/head/day

is considered to be enough to meet such commercial
and institutional water requirements, although this
demand may be as high as 50 l/h/d for highly
commercialized city
 Demand for Public Uses
• Includes quantity of water required for public
utility purposes, such as watering of
public parks, gardening, washing and
sprinkling on roads, use in public
foundations etc.
 FIRE DEMAND
• Quantity of water for extinguishing fire should be
easily available and kept always stored in
storage reservoir
• Fire hydrants are usually fitted in water mains at

• Minimum water pressure available at fire

hydrants should be 100 – 150 KN per m2
• The quantity of water required for fire fighting is
generally calculated by using different
empirical formulae:
(i)Kuichlings formulae
Q= 3182 𝑃
Where, Q = Amount of water in
l/minutes P= Population in
thousands
(ii)
Q=Freeman
1136 ( 𝑃 Formulae
+ 10)
10
(iii) National board of fire under writers formulae
For central congested high valued city,
 When population is less than or equal to 2,00,000
Q = 4637 𝑃 (1 − 0.01 𝑃 ) \
 When population sis more than 2 lakh, a provision for
54,000 l/min may be made
(iv) Buston formulae
Q= 5663 𝑃
 Water required to compensate losses in theft and wastes

• Includes water lost in leakages due to bad plumbing

or damaged metres, stolen water due to unauthorised
water connections, and other losses and wastes
• These losses should be taken into account while
estimating the total requirements
• These losses can be reduced by careful maintenance
and universal metering
• Even in best managed works, this amount may,
however, work to be as high as 15% of the total
consumption
 Total Requirement of water for a city

Annual average daily draft in l/day required by a town =

(Probable no: of persons using the facility) * (Per capita demand)
Per Capita Demand:
 It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one
person and includes the domestic use, industrial and
use, public use, waste theft etc…
commercial
 Per capita demand (q) in litres/day/head

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 (𝑉)

=
365 𝑋 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Factors affecting per capita demand
(i) Size of the city
 Big cities require huge quantity of water for maintaining clean
and
healthy environment
 Big cities are generally sewered and have a wide variety of
(ii)commercial and industrial activities
Climatic conditions
 At hotter and dry places more water consumption because of
more bathing cleaning, air cooling etc
 Similarly in extremely cold countries more water may be
consumed, because the people may keep their taps open to avoid
freezing of pipes and there may be more leakage from pipe
joints
(iii) Type of gentry and habits of people
 Rich and upper class communities generally consume more
water due to their affluent living standards
 Middle class communities consume average amounts, while
the poor slum consume very low amount
 Amount of water consumption is thus directly dependent upon
th economic status of the consumers
(iv) Industrial and Commercial Activities
 Many industries really huge amount of water and as such increase
the water demand considerably
(v) Quality of water supplies
 If the quality and taste of the supplied water is good, it will
be consumed more, because in that case, people will not use
other sources such as private wells, hand pumps etc…
(vi) Pressure in distribution system
 If the pressure in the distribution pipes is high and sufficient to
make at 3rd or even 4th storey, water consumption shall definitely be
more
(vii) Development of sewerage facilities
 The water consumption will be more, if the city is provided with
flush system and shall be less if the old conservation system of
latrines is adopted
(viii) System of supply
 The water may be supplied either continuously for all the 24 hours
of the day, or may be supplied only for peak periods during the
morning and evening
 The second system, i.e, the intermittent supplies, may lead to some
saving in water consumption due to losses occurring for lesser time
and a more vigilant use of water by the consumers
(ix) Cost of water
 If the water rates are high, lesser quantity may be consumed by
the people. This may not lead to large savings as the affluent and
rich people are little affected by such policies
(x) Policy of metering and method of charging
 Water tax is generally charged in two different ways:
 On the basis of meter reading
 On the basis of certain fixed monthly flat rate
 FACTORS AFFECTING LOSSES AND
WASTES
(I) Water tight joints
 Joints in the water mains and pipes generally leakes due to
bad
plumbing, leading to high wastage of water
 The leakage of water can be reduced by careful and better
plumbing with constant maintenance, and thereby keeping
(ii) the joints in
Pressure water tight
the distribution system
 High pressure in the distribution pipes leads to higher
leakage losses
 In order to keep the leakage less, it is desirable to keep
the pressure in the pipes to a minimum possible value
(iii) System of supply
 In intermittent system of supplies, the leakage losses are
reduced since they do not occur for all the 24 hours but occur
only for a few hours during the period the supply is restored
(iv) Metering
 When the supplies are metered, wastage is considerably reduced,
because people become more careful in using water, as they
to pay for the volume of water consumed by them
have
(vi) Unauthorised Connections
 Water is sometimes stolen through unauthorised connections,
which must be detected and checked by heavily punishing the
defaulters, so as to keep the losses minimum
 VARIATIONS IN DEMAND
(i) Seasonal Variations
 Seasonal variations occur due to larger use of water in summer season, lesser use
in winter, and much less in rainy season. These variations may also be caused by
seasonal use of water in industries such as processing of cash crops at the time of
harvesting, etc.
(ii)
 DayDaily Variations
to day variations (called daily variations) reflect household and industrial activity.
 For example, the water consumption is generally more on Sundays and holidays, on days
of dust storms, etc.
(ii) Hourly Variations
 There are variations in hour to hour demand (called hourly variations)
 For example, the consumption in the early hours of morning (0 to 6 hours-say) is
generally small, increases sharply as the day advances, reaching a peak value
between about 8 to 11 AM, then decreases sharply upto about 1 PM, remains constant
upto about 4 PM, again increases in the evening reaching a peak between 7 to
9 PM, finally falling to a low value in the late hours of night,
 Assessment of Normal Variations
(i) Maximum daily consumption is generally taken as 180 per cent
of the average daily consumption Therefore, Maximum daily
demand= 1.8 (i.e. 180 per cent) x Average daily demand)
(ii) Maximum hourly consumption is generally taken as 150 per
cent of its average hourly consumption demand. Therefore
Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day i.e., Peak
demand
TRACE KTU
= 1.5 X average hourly consumption of the max. day
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
= 1.5 X( )
1.8 𝑥 𝑞 24
= 1.5 x ( 24
)
𝑞
= 2.7 (24)
 Coincident Draft
• Total draft is not taken as sum of max.
hourly demand & fire demand but is taken
as sum of max. daily demand and fire
demand or max hourly demand,
whichever is more
• The maximum daily demand when added
to fire draft for working out total draft is
known as conicident draft
Various units in water supply scheme should be designed to serve the
variation in demand:
 Source of supply like well may be designed for max
daily consumption or sometimes for avg daily consumption
 The pipe main water from source to service reservoir designed
for max. dailyConsumption.
 Filter & other units for max. daily draft, Sometimes for twice
the average daily instead of 1.8 times avg daily
 The pumps lifting the water may be designed for maximum daily
draft plus some additional reserve for break-downs and repairs
 The distribution system should be designed for maximum hourly
draft of the maximum day or coincident draft with fire, whichever
is more.
 The service reservoir is designed to take care of the hourly
fluctuations, fire demands, emergency reserve, and the provision
required when pumps have to pump the entire-day's water in fewer
hours than 24 hours
 DESIGN PERIODS
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the
estimated requirements of the future. The future period for which a
provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the design
period.
Design period is estimated based on the following factors:
 useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear,
etc.
tear,
 Expandability aspect.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
 Available resources
 Performance of the system during initial period.
 POPULATION FORECASTING
The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are
given below. The particular method to be adopted for a particular case
or for a particular city depends largely on the factors discussed in the
methods, and the selection is left to the discretion and intelligence of
the designer.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method
FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION
GROWTH

• Increase due to birth

• Decrease due to birth
• Increase / decrease due to migration
 ARITHEMETICAL INCREASE METHOD
 This method is based on the assumption that the rate
of change of population with time is constant.
 This method is suitable for large and old city
with considerable development.
 If it is used for small, average or comparatively new cities,
 it will give lower population estimate than actual value.

 In this method the average increase in population

per decade is calculated from the past census
reports.
 This increase is added to the present population to
find out the population of the next decade.
 Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing
at constant rate.
• This method is based upon the assumption that
the population increases at a constant rate;
i.e. the rate of change of population with
time
𝑑𝑝
( ) is constant.
𝑑𝑡
P= [Po+n. 𝑥]
where P= forcasted population after n decades
from the present (i.e. last known census)
Po= Population at present (i.e. last known
census) n = No. of decades between now and
future
X= Average of population increases in
 GEOMETRIC INCREASE METHOD
• In this method the percentage increase in population from decade
to decade is assumed to remain constant
• The increase is compounded over the existing population
in every decade
• Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment
in population.
• Since this method gives higher value , hence should be
applied for a new industrial town at the beginning of
development for only few decades.
𝑟
Pn =Po (1 +
100 )n
Pn = Future population after decades
Po = Initial population
r = assumed growth rate
 INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

• Also known as method of varying increment

• In this method, per decade rate is not assumed to be
constant, but is progressively increasing or
decreasing depending upon whether the average of
incremental increase in the past data is positive or
negative 𝑛 𝑛+1 . 𝑦
2
Pn = Po + nX
+
Pn = Population after n decades
r = Avg increase of population of known decade
Y = Average of incremental increase of known
decades
DECREASING RATE OF GROWTH METHOD

• Since the rate of increase in population goes on

reducing as the cities reach towards saturation,
a method which make use of decrease in the
percentage increase is used. Here, the average
decrease in the percentage increase is worked
out and is subtracted from the latest % increase
for each successive decade
 SIMPLE GRAPHICAL METHOD
A graph is plotted from available data between time and
population. Smoothly the curve is then extended up to the
desired year. This method gives very appropriate result

COMPARATIVE GRAPHICAL METHOD

In this method the cities having conditions and characteristics

similar to city whose population is to be estimated are selected. It is
then assumed that city under consideration will develop as the
selected similar cities have developed in the past
 MASTER PLAN METHOD OR ZONING METHOD

 The master plan prepared for a city is generally

such as to decide the city in various zones and
thus to separate the residence, commerce and
industry from each other the population density is
also fixed
 Eg: There be 5 persons in residential plot and
may
there may be 10,000 plot in a zone. Then total
population is 5 x 10,000 = 50,000. By this method its
is very easy to access precisely the design population
because master plan will give us to when and where
given number of houses, industries and commercial
establishment would be developed
LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD
 WASTE WATER
• Waste water refers to the liquid waste, often produced as the
byproduct of several uses of water such as house hold
uses, industrial uses, agricultural uses, commercial uses and
livestock uses
• The sewages collected from the municipal areas are
transported
through sewers
• Sewers is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage
is conveyed to the point of discharge
• Inorder to determine the section of sewers, it is essential to know
the quantity of wastewater/sewage that would flow through
the sewer
 WASTE WATER FLOW RATES
• The total waste water flow can be divided
into two components:
 Dry weather flow (DWF)

 Wet weather flow /storm water

flow
 DRY WEATHERFLOW
• It is the flow through the sewers that would
be normally available during non rainfall periods
• Consists mainly of domestic sewage,
waste water, waste water from public facilities
industrial
and ground water infiltration
• Depends upon rate of water supply ,type of area
served, economic conditions of the people,
weather conditions and infiltartion
groundwater into sewers of
 Factors affecting dry weather flow

(I) Rate of water supply

 The quantity of wastewater produced from a community would
naturally depend upon the rate of water supply per capita per
day.
 The quantity
the total of wastewater
quantity entering the sewer would be less than
of water supplied.
 This is because of the fact that water is lost in
consumption,
domestic evaporation, lawn sprinkling, fire fighting,
industrial consumption etc.
 However, private sourse of water supply and infiltration of sub-
soil water in the sewers increase the wastewater flow rate.
 This extra water that enters the sewer can be assumed to
approximately equal to the water lost in consumption
etc.
(ii) Population Growth
 As population increases, demand for water also increase, which in turn
increase
the quantity of waste water generated
(iii) Type of area served
 Quantity of waste water produced depends upon whether the area served
is residential, commercial or industrial
 Waste water from the residential area directly depend upon the rate of
water
supply the waste water produced is assumed to be equal to 70-80 % of
supply,
 supplied
If there is no infiltration of water in sewers and there is no private source
water
(iv)ofInfiltration of sub-soil
water
 Ground water or subsoil water may infiltrate into the sewers through the
leaky joints
 Exfiltration is the reverse process that cause the flow of waste water from
sewer into the ground
 While due to infiltration, the quantity of waste water in the sewer increases, the
quantity of waste water decrease in case of exfiltration
 Both process are undesirable and occurs due to undesirable joints
 Variations in Sewage Flow
 The flow rate of sewage is important for
the design of sewer lines
 Flow rate never remains constant – varies
from
to hr, hr
place to place, season to
season
 A designer is concerned with the maximum and
minimum flows and these are expressed in
terms of the annual average daily flows
 Maximum daily flow = 2 x the annual average daily
flow Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 x the maximum daily
flow
= 3 x the annual average daily
flow

Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow

Minimum hourly flow = ½ minimum daily flow
= 1/3 Annual average daily flow
 Estimation of quantity of waste water (DWF)

 Quantity of waste water = Per capita

generation of waste water x total population x
peak factor
 Per capita generation of waste water = 70 to 80
% of per capita demand
sewer Peak factor
Domestic sewer 6
Lateral 4 to 6
Branch 3
Main line 2.5
Trunk or out fall sewer 2
 STORM WATER FLOW
 It is the additional flow that would occur during rainy seasons
 Consists of runoff from roofs, streets, yards, open spaces etc
Also known as wet weather
flow Factors affecting:
i. Area of the
catchment
ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
 Quantity of storm water
i) Rational formulae
ii) Empirical formulae
the quantity of storm water is considered as
function of intensity of rainfall, coefficient of
runoff, time of concentration, impermeability factor
and area of catchment.
 Time of Concentration
• Defined as the longest time, without unreasonable delay that will
be required for a drop of water to flow from the farthest point
of the drainage area to the point of concentration (ie, point at
which maximum runoff is being estimated
• When a rainfall just starts all over the catchment area
simultaneously, the rain drops falling just near the sewer inlet will
enter the sewer first
• The rate of flow at this stage will be small, but it will gradually
increases as more and more area contribute to the flow
• Finally when the whole area is contributing, the maximum rate of
runoff will be obtained, which will be equal to the rate
of precipitation over the whole area
• The time required from the beginning of rainfall to the
achievement of maximum runoff is called time of
concentration
 Time of concentration consists of 2 components:
(a) Time of entry
• Also called inlet time
• It is the time taken by the rainfall to run from the most distant
point of the watershed to the inlet of the sewer
• It decreases with increase in slope and imperviousness of the
ground
• It increases with distance and storage conditions of the
(b)ground
Time of flow
• Time required for the flow of water in the sewer to the point
under consideration
• It is computed by assuming the velocity of flow in the drain and
measuring the length of the sewer from the inlet to the
point under consideration
• Total time of concentration tc = te +tf
• Larger the catchment, longer will be the time of concentration
 DESIGN PERIOD
• The branches and main sewers are designed for the
population which may occur at the end of one generation of 30
years.
• This period of 30 years is called the design period.
• However, the pumping plants etc are designed for a design period
• of
The5 treatment
to 10 yearsunits
only.are designed for 10 to 30 year period.
The design depends upon the following:
 Ease and difficulty in expansion
 Amount and availability of investment,
 Anticipated rate of population growth, shifts in
including communities, industries and commercial
investments
 Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
Following design period can be considered
for different components:
1 Laterals less than 15 cm dia Full development

2 Trunk or main sewers 40 to 50 years

3 Treatment units 40 to 50 years

4 Pumping plant 5 to 10 years

 POPULATION EQUIVALENT

Population equivalent
 It is a term used to determine the
strength of industrial waste water

Population equivalent =standard BOD5 of

industrial sewage) / (standard BOD5 of
domestic sewage/ person / day)
 WATER INTAKE STRUCTURES
• These are structures which helps in safely
withdrawing water from source over a
predetermined range of pool level and then
to
discharge this water into the withdrawal
conduit, through which it flow upto the water
treatment plant
 LOCATION OF AN INTAKE
• Site should be near the treatment plant so that cost of conveying water is less

• It must be located in the purer zone of source so that best quality of water is
withdrawn from the source
• It must never be located at downstream or in the vicinity of point of disposal of
waste water
• It should never be located near the navigation channels as there are chances of
water getting polluted due to discharge of refuse and waste from ships and boats
• The site should be such that it permit withdrawal of water in greater amount at a
future date
• It must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest
period of the year
• The intake site should remain easily accessible
during flood and shouldn’t get flooded
• Inmeandering rivers intake shouldn’t
be located on curves or at least on sharp curves
 TYPES OF INTAKE STRUCTURES
• Simple submerged intake
• Intake tower
• River intake structures
• Canal intakes
• Intakes for sluice of dams
 Simple Submerged Structures
• Consist of a simple concrete block or a rock filled timber
crib supporting the withdrawal pipe.
• The withdrawal pipe is taken up to the sump well
from where the water is lifted by pumps
• Screen is provided to prevent the entry of debris
• Withdraw pipe is kept at 2 to 2.5 m above the bottom
lake
of to avoid entry of silts and sediments
• submerged intakes are cheap and do not
obstruct navigation
• Widely used for small water supply projects from streams
and lakes
• Not used for bigger projects
• They are not easily accessible for cleaning, repairing etc.
 2. INTAKE TOWERS
• Used on large projects and on rivers or reservoirs where are
large fluctuations of water level
• Gate controlled openings (ports) are provided which helps in
regulating the flow through tower and permit some selection
of quality of water
• Level of lowest port should be high enough above reservoir bed
so that sediment is not drawn into them
• Two types
 Wet intake towers
 Dry intake towers
 WET INTAKE TOWERS
• Has a concrete circular shell filled with water upto reservoir
level and has a vertical inside shaft connected to
withdrawal pipe
• Withdrawal conduit may be ever the river bed or may be in
the form of tunnel below river bed
• Openings are made into outer concrete shell, as well as into
the inside shaft
• Gates are usually placed on the shaft, so as to control the flow
of water into the shaft and the withdrawal conduit
• The water coming out of the withdrawal conduit may be taken
to pump house for lift, if the city’s water treatment
plant is located at high elevation; or may be taken
directly to the treatment plant, if situated at lower
elevation
 DRY INTAKE TOWERS
• Here water is directly drawn into withdrawal
conduit through gated entry port without
entering into the tower first
• So if gates are closed, no water inside the lower
 MEDIUM SIZED RIVER INATKE
STRCUTURES
• These are via media between
submerged
between intake (small streams) and intake
tower (reservoir)
• Withdraw water from almost all rivers
• Two types
 Twin well type of intake structures
 Single well type of intake structures
(I) Typical twin well type of river intake structure
 Its constructed on almost all type of rivers where river
water hugs the river bank
Usually available on non – alluvial
rivers It consists of
a) An inlet well
b) An inlet pipe and
c) A jack well
 Inlet well is circular or oblong well , located in river bed
admist water, so that always remains surrounded with water
 Screened opening are provided in the full height of inlet
well and are controlled by gates to enable the water to enter
inlet well from any desired level depending on river water
level
• Intake pipe connecting intake well
with jack well is usually of non pressure
type
• Laid with a gentle slope of 1 in 200 towards
jack well
• doesn’t
Pipe sizeexceed
should1.2bem/s
such that flow velocity
• Dia shouldn’t be less than 45 cm
 Jack well is constructed on high ground .
Its advantageous but rarely possible
without increasing inlet length and thus the
cost
(ii) SINGLE WELL TYPE INTAKES
 No inlet well & inlet pipe in this type of
river intake.
 Opening or ports fitted with bar screens
are provided in the jack well itself.
 The silt entering the jack well will partly
down in the bottom silt zone of jack well or
settle
may be lifted up with the pumped water since
pumps can easily lift sedimented water.
 The jack well can be periodically cleaned
manually, by stopping the water entry in to the
well
 CANAL INTAKES

• A nearby Irrigation Canal can be used as

the source of water.
• The Intake Well is generally located in the
bank of the Canal.
• Since water level is more or less constant,
there is no need of providing inlets at different
depth

• It essentially consist of concrete or

masonry intake chamber or well
 RESERVOIR INTAKES

• When the flow in the river is not guaranteed

throughout the year, a dam is constructed across the
river to store the water in the reservoir so formed.
• Reservoir Intakes essentially consists of an Intake
tower constructed on the slope of Dam at such a
place where Intake can draw water in sufficient
quantity even in the driest period.
• Intake pipes are fixed at different levels, so as to
draw water near the surface in all variations of
water levels.
 LAKE INTAKE
• These Intakes are constructed in the bed of lake below
the low water level so as to draw water even in dry
season.
• It mainly consist of a pipe laid in the bed of the lake.
• One end of the pipe which is in middle of the lake is
fitted with bell mouth opening covered with a mesh
and protected timber or concrete crib.
• The water enters in the pipe through the bell mouth
opening and flows under gravity to the bank where it is
collected in a sump well and then pumped to the
treatment plant for
 CONDUITS
• Raw water after being collected, is conveyed to
the city by means of conduits
• Conduits are large sized pipes which are
used for carrying water in water supply system
• Depending upon the conditions and
characteristics of flow, the conduits may be
divided into:
 Gravity conduits
Pressure conduits
 GRAVITY CONDUITS
• Gravity conduits are those in which the water
flows under the mere action of gravity.
• In such a conduit, the hydraulic gradient line
will coincide with the water surface and
willbedbeof the
the parallel
conduitto
• This is so, because in such a flow, the water is all along
at atmospheric pressure, and thus there is no
pressure term in Bernoulli's equation
• Gravity conduits can be in the form of canals, flumes or
aqueducts
(I) Canals

 These are open channels which are constructed by cutting

high grounds and constructing banks or low grounds
 They may be either lined or unlined depending upon the nature of
the ground, available slopes, design velocities, quality of water
required, losses of water etc
 However they are generally not used for water supplies but are
often used for irrigation
(II) Flumes
• Open channels supported above the ground over trestles, etc., are
called flumes.
• They are used to convey water across valleys and
minor depressions or over drains and other obstructions in their
path.
• They may be made of masonry, R.C.C., metal or wood, and
are usually circular or rectangular in cross-section.
(iii) Aqueducts
• Aqueducts are closed, rectangular or circular or horse
shoe sections, built of masonry or R.C.C.
• They wind their way through landscape, with gradual
slopes,
like roads, railways and highways.
• Although they are covered or closed, yet water does not flow
• under pressure
They are as they
generally are not½allowed
designed or ¾ th to run full.
full.
• The aqueducts which have been designed as grade
should not run full under pressure, because the tension
aqueducts
developed under such circumstances may open out the joints of
masonry work endangering the structural stability, thus causing
serious leakage of water.
• Inspite of being closed, their waters are susceptible to
contamination, as the pollution can seep into their
waters through cracks and leaky joints.
 PRESSURE CONDUITS

• These are closed conduits and as no air can enter into them, the
water flows under pressure above the atmospheric pressure
• The bed of the conduit in pressure flows is independent on
the grade of hydraulic gradient line which really governs the
flow velocities
• The pressure pipes can follow natural available ground surface
and can freely go up and down hills or can dip beneath valleys
or mountains, sometimes even rising above the
hydraulic gradient line and thus requiring lesser length of
conduits
• Pressure pipes proves economical than canals or flumes because
• they
Watergenerally
moving follow
throughshorter
such aroutes
conduit is not exposed anywhere,
and hence there are very less chances of its getting polluted
 SYSTEMS OF SEWERAGE
Sewerage
 Means the structures, devices, equipment
and appurtenances intended for the
collection,
transportation and pumping of sewage and
liquid waste system.
Systems of sewerage
a) Separate system
b) Combined system
c) Partially separate system
(I) Combined system
• In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-off
resulting from storms is carried through the same conduit
of sewerage system.
• In countries like India where actual rainy days are very few,
this system will face the problem of maintaining self cleansing
velocity in the sewers during dry season, as the sewage discharge
far
maylower
be as compared to the design discharge after including
storm water.
Advantages
• In an area where rainfall is spread throughout a year, there is no
need of flushing of sewers, as self cleansing velocity will
be developed due to more quantity because of addition of
storm water
• Only one set of pipe will be required for house plumbing
• In congested areas it is easy to lay only one pipe rather than two
pipes as required in other systems
 Disadvantage
•s Not suitable for the area with small period of rainfall in a year, because
dry weather flow will be small due to which self-cleansing velocity may
not develop in sewers, resulting in silting.
• Large flow is required to be treated at sewage treatment plant before
disposal, hence resulting in higher capital and operating cost of the
treatment plant.
• When pumping is required this system is uneconomical.
• During rains overflowing of sewers will spoil public hygiene
(ii) Separate System
• In separate system, separate conduits are used; one
sewage and other carrying storm water run-off.
carrying
• The storm water collected can be directly discharged into the water
body since the run-off is not as foul as sewage and no
treatment is generally provided.
• Whereas, the sewage collected from the city is treated
adequately before it is discharged into the water body or used for
irrigation to meet desired standards.
• Separate system is advantageous and economical for big towns
Advantages
• As sewage flows in separate pipe, hence the quantity to be treated at
sewage treatment plant is small, resulting in economy of treatment.
• This system may be less costly as only sanitary sewage is transported in
closed conduit and storm water can be collected and conveyed through
open drains.
• When pumping is required during disposal, this system is economical
due to less flow.
Disadvantages
• Self cleansing velocity may not developed at certain locations in
sewers and hence flushing of sewers may be required
• This system requires laying two sets of pipe, which may
be difficult in congested area.
• This system will require maintenance of two sets of pipelines and
hence maintenance cost is more
(iii) Partially separate system
 In this system part of the storm water especially collected from
roofs and paved courtyards of the buildings is admitted in the
same drain along with sewage from residences and institutions,
etc.
 The storm water from the other places is collected
separately using separate storm water conduits
Advantages
• Economical and reasonable size sewers are required.
• Work of house plumbing is reduced as rain water from roofs,
sullage from bathrooms and kitchen, etc. are combined
with discharge from water closets.
• Flushing of sewers may not be required as small portion of storm
water is allowed to enter in sanitary sewage
 Disadvantages
• Increased cost of pumping as compared to separate system at
treatment plants and intermediate pumping station
wherever required.
• In dry weather self-cleansing velocity may not develop in the
sewers.
 PUMPS
In a water supply scheme, pumps are required at one or more of the
following stages:
 To lift the water at the source, when the water cannot flow by
gravity into the mains (such as in the case of low levelled surface
sources and groundwater sources)
 To lift the water at the treatment plant, if sufficient natural slope is
not available, as to cause gravitational flow between different units
of the treatment plant.
 To lift the water after the treatment, so as to force the water into the
distributing mains, either directly or through a service reservoir.
 When the pressure in the distributing mains has to be increased or
boosted at some intermediate points within the distribution system,
so as to enable the water reach up to the reqd. height of three
storeys.
Sewage may have to be lifted by pumps under the following
circumstances:
 The sewage from localised low lying pockets in a city has to
be pumped so as to throw it up into the city’s sewer pipes flowing
under gravity and at higher elevations
 When area is flat, the laying of sewers at their designed gradients may
involve deeper and deeper excavations in the forward direction of
flow. In such circumstances, it may be advisable to lift the sewage at
suitable intervals, and then to lay sewers at reasonable depth below the
surface
• For disposing of the sewage of the basements of large
buildings, sewage may have to be pumped, as the street sewer may be
commercial
higher than the level of the basement floor.
• When the outfall sewer is lower than the level of the treatment plant,
the sewage will have to be pumped up.
• Similarly, when the level of the treated sewage coming out from the
treatment plant is lower than the level of the source of its disposal, it
will have to be pumped before it can be disposed of