Stacks

Chapter 7

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 Chapter Contents
7.1 Introduction to Stacks
7.2 Designing and Building a Stack Class –
Array-Based
7.3 Linked Stacks
7.4 Use of Stacks in Function Calls
7.5 Case Study: Postfix (RPN) Notation

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 Chapter Objectives
• Study a stack as an ADT
• Build a static-array-based implementation of stacks
• Build a dynamic-array-based implementation of
stacks
• Build a linked-implementation of stacks
• Show how a run-time stack is used to store
information during function calls
• (Optional) Study postfix notation and see how
stacks are used to convert expressions from infix to
postfix and how to evaluate postfix expressions

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 Introduction to Stacks
• Consider a card game with a discard pile
– Discards always placed on the top of the pile
– Players may retrieve a card only from the top
What
What other
otherexamples
examples
can
canyou
youthink
thinkof
of that
that
are
aremodeled
modeledby byaa
stack?
stack?
• We seek a way to represent and manipulate this in
a computer program
• This is a stack
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 Introduction to Stacks
• A stack is a last-in-first-out (LIFO) data
structure
• Adding an item
– Referred to as pushing it onto the stack
• Removing an item
– Referred to as
popping it from
the stack

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 A Stack
• Definition:
– An ordered collection of data items
– Can be accessed at only one end (the top)
• Operations:
– construct a stack (usually empty)
– check if it is empty
– Push: add an element to the top
– Top: retrieve the top element
– Pop: remove the top element

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 Example Program
• Consider a program to
do base conversion of
a number (ten to two)

• Note program which assumes existence of a

Stack class to accomplish this, Fig 7.2
– Demonstrates push, pop, and top

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 Selecting Storage Structure
• Model with an array
– Let position 0 be top of stack

• Problem … consider pushing and popping

– Requires much shifting

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 Selecting Storage Structure
• A better approach is to let position 0 be the
bottom of the stack

Note
Notebeginning
beginning
of Stack.hfile,
of Stack.h file,
Fig.
Fig. 7.3
7.3
• Thus our design will include
– An array to hold the stack elements
– An integer to indicate the top of the stack
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 Implementing Operations
• Constructor
– Compiler will handle allocation of memory
• Empty
– Check if value of myTop == -1
• Push (if myArray not full)
– Increment myTop by 1
– Store value in myArray [myTop]
• Top
– If stack not empty, return myArray[myTop]
• Pop
– If array not empty, decrement myTop
• Output routine added for testing

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 The Stack Class
• The completed Stack.h file, Fig. 7.4A
– All functions defined
– Note use of typedef mechanism
• Implementation file, Stack.cpp, Fig 7.4B
• Driver program to test the class, Fig 7.5
– Creates stack of 4 elements
– Demonstrates error checking for stack full, empty

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 Dynamic Array
to Store Stack Elements
• Same issues regarding static arrays for
stacks as for lists
– Can run out of space if stack set too small
– Can waste space if stack set too large
• As before, we demonstrate a dynamic array
implementation to solve the problems
• Note additional data members required
– DStack Data Members

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 Dynamic Array
to Store Stack Elements
• Constructor must
– Check that specified numElements > 0
– Set capacity to numElements
– Allocate an array pointed to by myArray with
capacity = myCapacity
– Set myTop to -1 if allocation goes OK
• Note implementation of constructor for
DStack
• Fig 7.6A DStack.h, Fig. 7.6B DStack.cpp
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 Dynamic Array
to Store Stack Elements
• Class Destructor needed
– Avoids memory leak
– Deallocates array allocated by constructor

• Note destructor definition

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 Dynamic Array
to Store Stack Elements
• Copy Constructor needed for
– Initializations
– Passing value parameter
– Returning a function value
– Creating a temporary storage value
• Provides for
deep copy
• Note definition

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 Dynamic Array
to Store Stack Elements
• Assignment operator
– Again, deep copy needed
– copies member-by-member, not just address
• Note implementation of algorithm in
operator= definition

• View driver program to test DStack class,

Fig. 7.10
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 Further Considerations
• What if dynamic array initially allocated for
stack is too small?
– Terminate execution?
– Replace with larger array!
• Creating a larger array
– Allocate larger array
– Use loop to copy elements into new array
– Delete old array
– Point myArray variable at this new array

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 Further Considerations
• Another weakness – the type must be set
with typedef mechanism
• This means we can only have one type of
stack in a program
– Would require completely different stack
declarations and implementations
• Solution coming in Chapter 9
– class templates

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 Linked Stacks
• Another alternative to allowing stacks to grow
as needed
• Linked list stack needs only one data
member
– Pointer myTop
– Nodes allocated (but not
part of stack class)
• Note declaration, Fig. 7-11

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 Implementing Linked Stack
Operations
• Constructor
– Simply assign null pointer to myTop
• Empty View
View
– Check for myTop == definitions
definitionsin
null in
Fig.
Fig. 7.12
7.12
• Push
– Insertion at beginning of list
• Top
– Return data to which myTop
points
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 Implementing Linked Stack
Operations
• Pop
– Delete first node in the
linked list
ptr = myTop; View
View
myTop = myTop->next; definitions
definitionsinin
delete ptr; Fig.
Fig. 7.12
7.12
• Output
– Traverse the list
for (ptr = myTop;
ptr != 0; ptr = ptr->next)
out << ptr->data << endl;
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 Implementing Linked Stack
Operations
• Destructor
– Must traverse list and deallocate nodes
– Note need to keep track of ptr->next before
calling delete ptr; View
View
definitions
definitionsinin
• Copy Constructor Fig.
Fig. 7.12
7.12
– Traverse linked list,
copying each into
new node
– Attach new node
to copy
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 Implementing Linked Stack
Operations
• Assignment operator
– Similar to copy constructor
– Must first rule out self assignment
– Must destroy list in stack being assigned a new
value
• View completed linked list version of stack
class, Fig 7.12
• Note driver program, Fig. 7.12C

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 Application of Stacks
Consider events when a function begins
execution
• Activation record (or stack frame) is created
• Stores the current environment for that
function.

• Contents:

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 Run-time Stack
• Functions may call other functions
– interrupt their own execution
• Must store the activation records to be
recovered
– system then reset when first function resumes
execution
• This algorithm must have LIFO behavior
• Structure used is the run-time stack

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 Use of Run-time Stack
When a function is called …
• Copy of activation record pushed onto run-
time stack
• Arguments copied into parameter spaces
• Control transferred to starting address of
body of function

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 Use of Run-time Stack
When function terminates
• Run-time stack popped
– Removes activation record of terminated function
– exposes activation record of previously executing
function

• Activation record used to restore environment of

interrupted function
• Interrupted function resumes execution
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 Application of Stacks
Consider the arithmetic statement in the assignment
statement:
x=a*b+c
Compiler must generate
machine instructions
1. LOAD a Note:
Note:this
thisisis"infix"
"infix"notation
notation
2. MULT b The
Theoperators
operatorsare are
between
betweenthe theoperands
operands
3. ADD c
4. STORE x
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 RPN or Postfix Notation
• Most compilers convert an expression in
infix notation to postfix
– the operators are written after the operands
• So a * b + c becomes a b * c +
• Advantage:
– expressions can be written without parentheses

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 Postfix and Prefix Examples
INFIX RPN (POSTFIX) PREFIX
A+B A B + + A B
A*B+C A B * C + + * A B C
A * (B + C) A B C + * * A + B C
A - (B - (C - D)) A B C D--- -A-B-C D
A-B-C-D A B-C-D- ---A B C D

Prefix
Prefix:: Operators
Operatorscome
come
before
beforethe
theoperands
operands

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 Evaluating RPN Expressions
"By hand" (Underlining technique):
1. Scan the expression from left to right to find an operator.
2. Locate ("underline") the last two preceding operands
and combine them using this operator.
3. Repeat until the end of the expression is reached.

Example:
2 3 4 + 5 6 - - *
 2 3 4 + 5 6 - - *
 2 7 5 6 - - *
 2 7 5 6 - - *
 2 7 -1 - *
 2 7 -1 - *  2 8 *  2 8 *  16
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 Evaluating RPN Expressions
By using a stack algorithm
1. Initialize an empty stack
2. Repeat the following until the end of the
expression is encountered
a) Get the next token (const, var, operator) in the
expression
b) Operand – push onto stack Note:
Note:ififonly
only11value
valueonon
Operator – do the following stack,
stack,this
thisisisan
aninvalid
invalid
RPN
RPNexpression
expression
i. Pop 2 values from stack
ii. Apply operator to the two values
iii. Push resulting value back onto stack
3. When end of expression encountered, value of
expression is the (only) number left in stack
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Evaluation
of Postfix

• Note the
changing
status of the
stack

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 Converting Infix to RPN
By hand: Represent infix expression as an expression tree:

A * B + C A * (B + C) ((A + B) * C) / (D - E)

+ * /

A * -
* C +

A B + C D E
B C

 A B
x  y
x y
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 /
Traverse the tree in Left-Right-Parent
order (postorder) to get RPN:
* -
A B+ C*D E-/
+ C D E
Traverse tree in Parent-Left-Right /
order (preorder) to get prefix: A B

* -
/ * + A BC- D E
+ C D E

Traverse tree in Left-Parent-Right /

order (inorder) to get infix: A B
* -
— must insert ()'s
+ C D E
( ((A + B) * C)/(D - E) )
A B
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 Another RPN Conversion Method
By hand: "Fully parenthesize-move-erase" method:
1. Fully parenthesize the expression.
2. Replace each right parenthesis by the
corresponding operator.
3. Erase all left parentheses.
Examples:

A * B + C  ((A * B) + C) A * (B + C)  (A * (B + C) )
 ((A B * C +  (A (B C + *
 A B * C +  A B C + *

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 Stack Algorithm

1. Initialize an empty stack of operators

2. While no error && !end of expression
a) Get next input "token" from infix expression
b) If token is … const,
const,var,
var,arith
arithoperator,
operator,
left
leftor
orright
rightparen
i. "(" : push onto stack paren

ii. ")" : pop and display stack elements until

"(" occurs, do not display it

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 Stack Algorithm Note:
Note:Left
stack
Leftparenthesis
stackhas
parenthesisinin
haslower
lowerpriority
priority
than
thanoperators
operators
iii. operator
if operator has higher priority than top of stack
push token onto stack
else
pop and display top of stack
repeat comparison of token with top of stack
iv. operand display it
3. When end of infix reached, pop and display stack
items until empty

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 Sample Program
• Converts infix expression to postfix
– Uses Stack data type (dynamically allocated
version)
– View Fig 7.15
– User enters elements of infix expressions
separated by spaces
– Program generates postfix expression
– Also notes invalid infix expressions

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