Faculty of Engineering & Information Technology

Al-AZHAR UNIVERSITY

Microcontrollers:
Programming and Applications
(ITME 4336 )

Chapter 1
Introduction to Embedded System

Lecturer: Dr. Eng. Mohammad Aqel

First Semester 2022/2023

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 What is an embedded system ?
• An embedded system is any device which
includes a programmable component but itself is
not intended to be a general-purpose computer.

• An embedded system:

– is a collection of programmable components

surrounded by application-specific hardware
components and other peripherals.

– and interacts continuously with its environment

through sensors.
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• It is a computer system designed to
perform one or a few dedicated functions
often with real-time computing constraints.

• Embedded systems are controlled by one

or more main processing cores that is
typically either a microcontroller or a digital
signal processor (DSP).
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Main characteristics of an embedded system
• Dedicated and application-specific (not general purpose).

• Contains at least one programmable component.

• Interacts continuously with the environment.

• It is real-time: must meet external timing constraints (deadlines).

• Must meet other constraints: power consumption, physical

constraints, cost, reliability, safety.

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 Components of an embedded system
• Digital components: processors, memories, buses,
application specific circuits (RTC, PWM, Bluetooth
modules,….) , peripherals (interface circuits).

• Embedded software.
– software running on embedded processors:
• Real-time operating system (such as android, IOS, Raspian)
• Application programs.
• Peripheral ’ s drivers.

• Analog components: sensors, actuators.

• Converters: A/D and D/A.

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 Main elements in embedded systems

• Programmable Processors for data processing

•Memory modules for storage purposes to maintain

data.

•Communication using buses: to transfer data

between processors, peripherals and memories within a
system.

• Peripherals (interfaces) and controllers.

–Ethernet , USB, LCD…..

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 A “short list” of embedded systems
• Digital cameras
• Automatic teller machines
• Cell phones
• Cordless phones
• Disk drives
• Electronic toys/games
• Fax machines
• Fingerprint identifiers
• Home security systems
• Modems
• Network switches/routers
• Photocopiers
• Printers
• Scanners
• Smart ovens/dishwashers
• Televisions
• Temperature controllers
• DVD players

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 Processors in embedded systems
• Processor: is the device that runs a number of algorithms and contains
control and data path units.

• General purpose processors (GP):

– Perform a variety of computational tasks.
– Flexibility and low cost.
– Slow and power hungry.

• Application-specific processors (ASIPs):

– Tuned for application domain, but programmable.
– Fast and power efficient (compared to GP).

• Application-specific circuits (ASICs):

– Customized hardware components for specific task.
– Fast, power efficient, minimal area.
– Inflexibility and high cost.

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 General-purpose processors
• Programmable devices used in a variety of
applications.

• Contain program memory, general data path

with large register file and general ALU.

• Low time-to-market and NRE (non-recurring

cost).

• Time-to-market: the time required to

develop a system to the point that it can be
released and sold to customers

• NRE Cost :The one-time monetary cost of

designing the system

• High flexibility.
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Application-specific processors (ASIPs)
• Programmable devices optimized for a
particular application or family of applications
having common characteristics.

• Contain program memory, optimized data

path and specific functional units.

• Use specific instruction set.

• High performance, small size and low power

consumption.

• Usually they exhibit small flexibility.

• DSP, network processors, etc.

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 Application-specific circuits
• Digital circuits designed to implement exactly
one algorithm (application or part of
application).

• Custom-designed circuits that are necessary

if ultimate speed or energy efficiency is the
goal.

• Contain only the components needed for the

execution of a specific algorithm (no program
memory is needed).

• Fast, low power consumption, small size,

high cost for low volume.

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 Programmable devices
• Prefabricated digital devices that can be
purchased and programmed by the
designer/user.

• Programmable arrays of generic logic

modules, programmed by the designer/user
and not by the semiconductor foundry.

• FPGAs.

• Alternative to ASICs with low NRE cost, and

fast availability.

• Penalty on area, performance and power

consumption compared to ASIC.

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 Memory in embedded systems
• Memory is used in embedded systems for storage purposes and offers
access capabilities (read and/or write).

• Main characteristics:
– Storage permanence: ability of memory to hold stored bits after they are
written.
– Write speed ability.

• There are many different types of memories:

– SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
– DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
– ROM (Read-Only Memory)
– PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
– EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory )
– EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory )
– Flash.
– NVRAM ((Non Volatile Random Access Memory)
– .
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• SRAM, DRAM:

– Processor writes to memory simply and fast.

– Holds bits as long as power supplied to memory (DRAM begin to
lose bits almost immediately after written –refreshing is needed).
– SRAM is more expensive, faster (access time 10ns vs 60ns) and
more reliable than DRAM

• ROM, PROM:
– Once data has been written onto a ROM it cannot be removed
and can only be read (mask programmed: data are written
during fabrication).
– Never loses its data.
– PROM is a variation of ROM manufactured as blank memory on
which data can be written with a special device (programmer).

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• EPROM :
– Retains contents until it is exposed to ultraviolet light. The light clears
the contents, making possible to reprogram the memory.
– To write the memory, a special device (programmer) is needed.

• EEPROM , Flash:
– EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it
to an electrical charge.
– Retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
– Processor can write to memory, but slower than RAM.
– The principal difference between EEPROM and Flash is that EEPROM
requires data to be written or erased one byte at a time whereas Flash
allows data to be written or erased in blocks (faster).

• NVRAM:
– Retains contents when power is turned off. It is an SRAM that is made
non-volatile through a connection with a power source (battery).
– Often it is a combination of SRAM and EEPROM.

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 Communication in embedded systems
• Communication in an embedded system accounts for the transfer of data
between processors, custom hardware blocks, peripherals and memories.

• Implemented using buses.

• Example: Common forms of communication are when a processor read or

writes a memory or when a processor reads or writes a peripheral ’ s
register.

• Connectivity schemes:
– Serial communication (USB, RS232 etc.): use single wire, high throughput for
long distance communication, low cost).
– Parallel communication (PCI, etc.): use multiple wires, high throughput for short
distance communication, high cost).
– Wireless communication (Infrared, RF).

• Each connectivity scheme has an associated protocol describing the rules

for transferring data over it.

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 Components of Embedded System

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 Converters in embedded systems

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 Analog components in embedded systems

• Sensors
Capture physical stimulus (heat, light,
sound, pressure, magnetism,
mechanical motion) and generate a
proportional electrical current.
– Examples: car sensors (rain sensors
for wiper control, proximity sensors),
pressure sensors (touch pads and
screens), audio sensors, motion
sensors, thermal sensors, etc.
• Actuators
Convert a command to a physical
stimulus (heat, light, sound,
pressure, magnetism, mechanical
motion).
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 Embedded applications
• Automotive electronics (airbag control, ABS,
consumption control etc.).

• Aircraft electronics (guidance, flight control, air

quality control, pressure control etc.).

• Telecommunication systems (mobile phones and

network cards, mobile base stations etc.).

• Medical systems (diagnostic and monitoring

systems, radiation systems).

• Defence systems (radars and safety

communication systems, etc.).

• Consumer multimedia electronics (cameras,

game machines etc.).

• Robotics (electro-mechanical
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systems).
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 Constraints of embedded applications
• Reactivity requirement.

• Timing constraints.

• Power consumption constraints.

• Size and weight constraints.

• Cost constraints.

• Safety and security constraints.

• Reliability constraints.

• Time-to-market constraints.
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Reactivity and timing constraints
• Reactivity requirement:
– embedded systems are in continual interaction with its physical
environment through sensors and actuators.

• Timing constraints:
– embedded systems have to perform in real- time which means that if data
is not ready by a certain deadline (i.e. reaction of the system within a
certain time interval dictated by the environment), the system fails.

– A real-time constraint (deadline) is called hard, if not meeting that

constraint could result in a failed operation of the system. All other time-
constraints are called soft (if not meeting, the operation of the system will
be degraded, but the system will not fail).

– Embedded & real-time terms are almost synonymous.

– Most embedded systems are real-time and most real- time systems are
embedded.

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 Power, size and weight constraints
• Power consumption constraints:

– High power consumption needs strong power supply and

expensive cooling system.
– High power consumption leads to short battery life time (very
critical issue in mobile/portable applications).

• Size and weight constraints:

– Critical for mobile, portable devices (e.g. mobile phones,

cameras).
– Very critical for specific medical applications (e.g. pills with
integrated camera and data acquisition system).
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 Cost constraints
• Cost constraints: embedded systems are very often mass
products in highly competitive markets and have to be
shipped at a low cost (e.g. mobile phones market).

• We are mainly interesting in manufacturing cost and

design cost.

• Main cost factors: design time and effort, type of used

components (processors, memory, I/Os), technology
(board-based, system-on-chip, type of manufacturing
processes), testing time, power consumption.

• Non-recurring engineering (NRE) costs (design cost and

prototypes development) affects the final cost of the
product.
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Reliability, safety and security constraints
• Reliability constraints:

– Reliability is the probability of an embedded system working correctly

provided that it was working at t = 0.

– Even perfectly designed systems can fail if the operation assumptions

(workload, possible errors) turn out to be wrong. So, we have to be very
carefully when define the operation assumptions for a specific
application in a given environment.

• Safety constraints: embedded systems are often used in life critical

applications (automotive electronics, nuclear plants, medical applications,
defence applications etc.).

• Security constraints: embedded systems for communication applications

must often support confidentiality and authenticity.

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 Time-to-market constraints
• Time-to-market constraints: in highly competitive
markets, it is critical to catch the market window:
a short delay may have catastrophic financial
consequences, even if the quality of the product is
excellent.

• Development time has to be reduced and some ways to

achieve that are:
– Efficient design methodologies.
– Efficient design tools.
– Reuse of previously designed and verified parts (hardware and
software).
– Use of existing hardware-software prototyping platforms.
– Design team understanding both software and hardware.
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