Research Methodology

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 Unit I
• Meaning of Research Problem
• Sources of Research Problem
• Criteria Characteristics of a good Research Problem
• Errors in selecting a Research Problem
• Scope and Objectives of Research Problem
• Approaches of investigation of solutions for Research
Problem
• Data collection
• Analysis
• Interpretation
• Necessary instrumentations

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 Why do research?

• Validate intuition

• Improve methods

• Demands of the Job

• For publication
 Motivation for Research Study
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of
fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research
may be either one or more of the following:
Desire to:
get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
be of service to society;
get respectability.
 What is Research?
• A systematic means of problem solving
(Tuckman 1978)
• 5 key characteristics:

1.Systematic – research process

2.Logical – induction/deduction
3.Empirical – evidence based
4.Reductive – generalisation
5.Replicable – methodology.
 Research Defined and Described
“Research is the systematic approach to
obtaining and confirming new and reliable
knowledge”
– Systematic and orderly (following a series of
steps)
– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be
reliable

This is a general definition which applies to all

disciplines
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 Research Defined and Described
“Research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organising
and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.”(Clifford Woody definition in
technical sense)
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Notice that:

“… truth was not used in the definition of

research”
“This concept of truth is outside of the
productive realm of thinking by researchers”

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 Research is not
Accidental discovery :

1. Accidental discovery may occur in structured

research process
2. Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not
previously noticed
3. May lead to a structured research process to
verify or understand the observation

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 Research is not … cont.
Data Collection

• an intermediate step to gain reliable

knowledge
• collecting reliable data is part of the research
process

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 Research is not … cont.
Searching out published research results in
libraries (or the internet)

•This is an important early step of research

•The research process always includes synthesis
and analysis
•But, just reviewing of literature is not research

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 Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events,
phenomena, relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the information
generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions

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• All well designed and conducted research has
potential application.
• Failure to see applications can be due to:
– Users not trained or experienced in the specialized
methods of economic research and reasoning
– Researchers often do not provide adequate
interpretations and guidance on applications of
the research
• Researchers are responsible to help users
understand research implications
(How?)
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 Scope and Objectives of Research
Problem
 Research Objectives are the specific components of the
research problem, that you’ll be working to answer or
complete, in order to answer the overall research
problem. - Churchill, 2001

 The objectives refers to the questions to be answered

through the study. They indicate what we are trying to
get from the study or the expected results / outcome of
the study.
 Contd…

 Research Objectives should be clear and achievable.

 The objectives may be specified in the form of either
statements or questions.
 Generally, they are written as statements, using the
word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to
determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )
 Objectives of Research
• To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights
into a phenomenon. Eg. Exploratory or
Formulative Research
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group.
Eg. Descriptive Research
• To determine the frequency with which
something occurs. Eg. Diagnostic Research
• To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship
between variables. Eg. Hypothesis-testing 16
 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research,
are facing several problems. Some of the important problems are as
follows:

1.The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great

impediment for researchers in our country.

2.There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on

one side and business establishments, government departments and research
institutions on the other side.

3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the
material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are
often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.

4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want
of adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources.

5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.
 Cont..
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of
adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial
assistance.

7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places

and much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the
books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material
from them.

8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get
copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government
publications in time.

9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from

various government and other agencies doing this job in our country.

10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and
also problems relating to the process of data collection and related things.
 Errors in selecting a Research
Problem
 Uncontrollable variables
 Human tendencies
 Time and money
 Lack of computerization
 Insufficient interaction between university research
departments and business establishments
 Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give
information
 Aims of Research Methodology
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it. (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulate research studies);
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group.(studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies);
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else (studies with this
object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Types of research can be classified in many different ways.
Descriptive versus Analytical Research
Applied versus Fundamental Research
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Conceptual versus Empirical Research

Descriptive research concentrates on finding facts to ascertain the

nature of something as it exists.
In contrast, analytical research is concerned with determining
validity of hypothesis based on analysis of facts collected.
 Cont…
• Applied research is carried out to find answers to
practical problems to be solved and as an aid in decision
making in different areas including product design,
process design and policy making.

• Fundamental research is carried out as more to satisfy

intellectual curiosity, than with the intention of using the
research findings for any immediate practical application.
 Cont…
• Qualitative research studies such aspects of the research subject
which are not quantifiable, and hence not subject to measurement
and quantitative analysis.

• In contrast quantitative research make substantial use of

measurements and quantitative analysis techniques.

• Conceptual research is involves investigation of thoughts and

ideas and developing new ideas or interpreting the old ones based
on logical reasoning.

• In contrast empirical research is based on firm verifiable data

collected by either observation of facts under natural condition or
obtained through experimentation.
 Basic v/s Applied Research
• Basic (pure or fundamental) – to determine or
establish fundamental facts and relationships
within a discipline or field of study. Develop
theories … (examples in economics?)
• Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose
of obtaining information to help resolve a
particular problem
• The distinction between them is in the
application
– Basic has little application to real world policy and
management but could be done to guide applied
research
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Basic Applied

Theoretical? Quick Answers?

Laboratory Based? Field Based?
Tightly Controlled? Loosely Controlled?
Lacks External Validity? Externally Valid?
Internal
Focus on Mechanism > Focus on Effect
Validity?
 Analytic vs Descriptive Research
• Descriptive Research (Ex post facto) – the
attempt to determine, describe, or identify
something.
– The intent is often synthesis, which pulls
knowledge or information together (survey and
fact finding enquiries (frequency of hopping,
preferences of people)
• Analytic Research – the attempt to establish
why something occurs or how it came to be
• All disciplines generally engage in both
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 Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
• Quantitative Research – is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount.
• Qualitative Research – is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon relating to quality or
kind.
- is important in the behavioral Sciences to discover
motives of human behavior, people likes, dislikes,
desires, feel and think etc.
eg., Motivation Research, Attitude or opinion research.

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 Quantitative v/s Qualitative
Quantitative Research Strategy Qualitative Research Strategy
•Investigation aims to assess a pre- •Investigation aims to create a novel
stated theory (Deductive Reasoning) theory (Inductive Reasoning)
•Often involves hypothesis testing •Researcher becomes an inherent part
of the study - ethnography
•Attempts to minimise the influence
of the researcher on the outcome •Qualitative data infers complex
•Quantitative data infers statistics statements or opinions
•Data collection therefore permits
•Data collection therefore requires
‘open’ responses
‘closed’ responses
Conceptual v/s Empirical Research
• Conceptual Research – related to abstract
ideas or theory.
– Used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concept or to reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical Research (experimental) – is data-
based research resulting is conclusions that
can be verified by observations or
experiments.

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 Other types of Research
Following are variations of above types of
research:
•One time or longitudinal
•Field setting or laboratory or simulation
•Clinical or diagnostic (case study based)
•Exploratory (development of hypothesis) or formalized
(testing of hypothesis)
•Historical (using documents or remains)
•Conclusion and decision-oriented
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 Sources of Research Problems

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 RESEARCH LIFE CYCLE

Identifying
Needs Collecting
and...

Driving
Decisions ...Analyzing
the data

Delivering
Conclusions

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 Research Outcomes

• Descriptive : depiction of a behaviour or a domain

• Explanatory : systemic explanation of behaviors
occurrences in the domain
• Predictive : statement of pattern of behaviors
occurrences within the domain; effect of particular
interventions
• Normative: declaration to a desired outcome

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 Methods and Methodolgy
Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly)
used interchangeable
•Methodology – the study of the general
approach to inquiry in a given field
•Method – the specific techniques, tools or
procedures applied to achieve a given objective
– Research methods in economics include regression
analysis, mathematical analysis, operations
research, surveys, data gathering, etc.

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 The Process of Research
• The process is initiated with a question or
problem (step 1)
• Next, goals and objectives are formulated to
deal with the question or problem (step 2)
• Then the research design is developed to
achieve the objectives (step 3)
• Results are generated by conducting the
research (step 4)
• Interpretation and analysis of results follow
(step 5)
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The Process of Research

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 Research Problem

•A research problem (also “issue” or “question”)

indicates the need or desire to know or to
understand something.
•Problem solving has three steps:
1. Obtaining relevant information about the problem
and potential solutions – research component
2. Examine alternative approaches and chose among
them – decision component
3. Determine how to implement the decision and take
action – action component

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 Research v/s Decision Problems
• Research problems and decision problems may
be closely related, especially in subject-matter
or problem-solving research.
• Also, decision (subject-matter) problems and
action problems usually go together – we make
a decision, then act on it.
• Disciplinary research however, may not lead to
a specific decision or action. Disciplinary
problems are of interest within the discipline
and are oriented to the generation of
knowledge.
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• When research does lead to decision or action
it is important to keep the research activity
separated from the decision and
implementation activities.
• This helps to maintain as much neutrality as
possible in the research process and helps the
researcher remain objective.

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• The dashed line separates research (information
generating) from the problem solving process

RESEARCH
PROBLEM-SOLVING
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• This model of problem-solving is not relevant
to disciplinary research, which is less likely to
require decisions.
• Problem solving for decision making:
– is initiated with problem definition,
– progresses to analysis,
– then decision making and actions follow to
implement the decision.
• Normative and positivistic knowledge are
used interdependently, impacting each step
in the process.
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 Research Problem Identification
• This is the most critical and important part of
all research projects.
• The problem is the focus of both basic and
applied research. It is the reason (justification)
for the research.
• The problem identification and explanation
affect the quality, usefulness, effectiveness,
and efficiency of the research, more than any
other part of the research plan.

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• The research problem is the reason the
research is being undertaken
• The written problem description is the only
credible evidence that a clear understanding
of the issue has been achieved.

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 The Problem Statement
• Research problems are always linked to a more
general set of problems, so it is useful to
separate the problem statement into two parts:
1) The general problem (or problematic situation),
2) The specific problem (or the researchable problem).

• Note that the specific problem is not

necessarily “small”, but rather it must be
precisely specified and capable of being
addressed with available resources.
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• The general problem statement provides the
background or setting for the researchable
problem.
• Usually, it helps to introduce the problem with
very general statements, then progressively
narrow the focus to more specific, precise
issues.
• However, if the reader of the proposal is
already knowledgeable on the subject, the
broad general discussion can be reduced.
i.e.. The problem definition should be tailored for
the expected audience. 45
• The general problem statement sets the stage
for the specific, researchable problem.
• The specific problem narrows the perspective
to a set of issues on which knowledge or
information is needed.
• It must be clarified,
– what knowledge is needed
– the reasons the knowledge is needed
– by whom the knowledge is needed
– the potential purposes it could serve.

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 Objectives
• Objectives specify what the research project
proposes to accomplish (do, achieve, estimate,
determine, measure, evaluate, etc.)
• They are usually best specified in general and
specific parts. Often the shortest part of the
proposal, but it is the centerpiece.
1) General objective – states the main purpose of the
study. It should derive directly from the research
problem statement. One sentence is best!
2) Specific objectives – a set or list of sub-objectives,
each of which contributes to achieving the general
objective
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 Developing Problem and Objective
Statements
• There are no constant rules or procedures to
developing problem and objective statements.
It may depend on how much you know about
the subject of the research.
• If your knowledge of the subject is limited, you
may start with a broad consideration of the
subject – then narrow the focus by segmenting
problem areas into logical components (issues,
questions, etc.)

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• If you know more about the research area and
already have a good idea about the
researchable problem, you may need to
develop the general dimensions or context of
the problem. (ie. Opposite from the previous
example).
• Once the problem has been defined and
general objective identified, the specific
objectives often naturally follow, by
considering what are important components.
• A logical and clearly written statement of
problems and objectives is often the most
difficult part of proposal writing.
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Data Collection
 Introduction

• Data Collection Strategies

• Characteristics of Good Measures
• Quantitative and Qualitative Data
• Tools for Collecting Data

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 Data Collection Strategies
• No one best way: decision depends on:
– What you need to know: numbers or stories
– Where the data reside: environment, files, people
– Resources and time available
– Complexity of the data to be collected
– Frequency of data collection
– Intended forms of data analysis

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 Rules for Collecting Data

• Use multiple data collection methods

• Use available data, but need to know
– how the measures were defined
– how the data were collected and cleaned
– the extent of missing data
– how accuracy of the data was ensured

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 Contd…..

• If must collect original data:

– be sensitive to burden on others
– pre-test, pre-test, pre-test
– establish procedures and follow them (protocol)
– maintain accurate records of definitions and
coding
– verify accuracy of coding, data input

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 Structured Approach
• All data collected in the same way
• Especially important for multi-site and cluster
evaluations so you can compare
• Important when you need to make
comparisons with alternate interventions

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 Use Structured Approach When:
• need to address extent questions
• have a large sample or population
• know what needs to be measured
• need to show results numerically
• need to make comparisons across different
sites or interventions

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 Semi-structured Approach
• Systematic and follow general procedures but
data are not collected in exactly the same way
every time
• More open and fluid
• Does not follow a rigid script
– may ask for more detail
– people can tell what they want in their own way

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 Use Semi-structured
Approach when:
• conducting exploratory work
• seeking understanding, themes, and/or issues
• need narratives or stories
• want in-depth, rich, “backstage” information
• seek to understand results of data that are
unexpected

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 Quantitative Approach
• Data in numerical form
• Data that can be precisely measured
– age, cost, length, height, area, volume, weight,
speed, time, and temperature
• Harder to develop
• Easier to analyze

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 Qualitative Approach
• Data that deal with description
• Data that can be observed or self-reported, but
not always precisely measured
• Less structured, easier to develop
• Can provide “rich data” — detailed and widely
applicable
• Is challenging to analyze
• Is labor intensive to collect
• Usually generates longer reports
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 Which Data?
If you: Then Use:
- want to conduct statistical analysis
- want to be precise Quantitative
- know what you want to measure
- want to cover a large group
- want narrative or in-depth information
- are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative
- do not need to quantify the results

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 Obtrusive v/s Unobtrusive
Methods
Obtrusive Unobtrusive
data collection methods data collection
that directly obtain methods that do not
information from those collect information
being evaluated directly from evaluees.
e.g., interviews, surveys, e.g., document analysis,
focus groups GoogleEarth, observation
at a distance, trash of the
stars

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How to Decide on Data Collection
Approach

• Choice depends on the situation

• Each technique is more appropriate in
some situations than others
• Caution: All techniques are subject to bias

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Triangulation to Increase Accuracy
of Data
• Triangulation of methods
– collection of same information using different
methods
• Triangulation of sources
– collection of same information from a variety of
sources
• Triangulation of evaluators
– collection of same information from more than one
evaluator
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 Data Collection Tools

• Participatory Methods
• Records and Secondary Data
• Observation
• Surveys and Interviews
• Focus Groups
• Diaries, Journals, Self-reported Checklists
• Expert Judgment
• Delphi Technique
• Other Tools
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