Building material and

construction I
Department of Architecture and urban planning

Lecture- 2

By Betelhem Hailegebriel
February, 2024
 Outline
 Natural stone

 HCB (Hollow concrete block)

 Rammed earth

 Mortar
 Natural stone

 Natural stone is perhaps the oldest, most abundant and most

durable “ready-made” building material, and is found

predominantly in hilly areas.

 Stones for construction purposes like the building of structures,

are prepared by breaking raw pieces from large rocks or stones

into stones of the appropriate size.

 Various types of stones with specific characteristics are used in

the construction.
 Classification of stone

Stone categorized into three main types based on their formation

process. This are igneous stone, sedimentary stone, and metamorphic
stone.

1. Igneous stone

 Volcanic in origin,

 they have been fused by heat and then cooled and crystallized.

 These hard stones have a very good compressive strength and are compact.

 The principal stones in this class are granites, basalt and obsidian.
Granite

 A coarse-grained igneous rock composed mainly of quartz, feldspar,

and mica.

 It is known for its durability and is commonly used in countertops,

flooring, and monuments.

Granite countertop, for kitchen granite for flooring

Basalt

 A fine-grained igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of lava.

 It is commonly used in construction, particularly for paving stones

and as a building material.

Obsidian

 A natural glass formed from volcanic lava that has cooled rapidly

without crystallization.

 It is often used in jewelry and decorative objects due to its glossy

appearance.

 Obsidian composed of silica (silicon dioxide) with minor amounts

of other elements such as aluminum, iron, magnesium, and

potassium.

 Its composition is similar to granite, but its lack of crystalline

structure distinguishes it as a glass.

2. Sedimentary stone

 Sedimentary stones, also known as sedimentary rocks, are formed by the

weathering of land masses and the removal of the particles by water and
wind and the deposition over thousands of years in lakes or the sea.

 The sedimentary stones are comparatively weak stones. They are less

compact and where exposed to the weather often not of long durability.

 The principal stones in this class are sandstone and limestone.

Sandstone

 Sandstone is composed primarily of sand-sized mineral particles (mainly

quartz) that have been compacted and cemented together.

 which gives it its characteristic hardness and resistance to weathering

 It often has a granular texture and is commonly used as a building

material

 It is commonly used in construction for building facades, walls, flooring,

paving, and decorative features. Sandstone is also used in landscaping,

monuments, sculptures, and as a raw material for glass and ceramics.
Limestone

 Limestone is a sedimentary rock primarily composed of calcium

carbonate (calcite or aragonite) derived from the accumulation of organic

and inorganic sedimentary materials, such as shells, and calcareous algae.

 It can vary in color and texture and is often used as a construction

material and in the production of cement.

 Such as building facades, walls, flooring, paving, and decorative features.

3. Metamorphic stone

 also known as metamorphic rocks

 are formed from the alteration of pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary,

or other metamorphic rocks) through the processes of heat, pressure, and

chemical reactions within the Earth's crust.

 These rocks undergo physical and chemical changes, resulting in the

formation of new minerals and textures.

 The principal stones in this class are slates (derived from clay), quartzite

(from sandstone) and marble (from limestone).

Slate

 Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock derived from the

metamorphism of shale or mudstone or clay.

 Slate is commonly used as a roofing material, in flooring, and for

decorative purposes.
Quartzite

From sandstone

 Quartzite is a hard, metamorphic rock and formed from the

metamorphism of sandstone

 is known for its durability and resistance to scratch.

 Quartzite is used in construction and as a decorative stone.

Quartzite tile
Quartzite as a Construction

 Due to its exceptional hardness, durability, and resistance to weathering,

Quartzite is an excellent choice for construction projects.

 It can be used for building facades, paving, or retaining walls.

 It is an ideal choice for use as an aggregate in concrete or as a base material

for roads and railways.

Quartzite as a Decorative Applications

 Polished Quartzite slabs or tiles are commonly used for countertops,

flooring, and wall cladding in both residential and commercial settings.

 Its resistance to discoloration and scratching makes it a practical and

attractive option for high-traffic areas.

Quartzite as Sculpture and Carving

 Although Quartzite is a very hard rock, skilled artisans can still

carve and sculpt it into intricate shapes and designs. The resulting
sculptures and carvings showcase the beauty and versatility of this
remarkable rock.
Marble

 is a metamorphic rock that forms from the metamorphism of

limestone.

 has a characteristic veined or mottled appearance.

 Marble is widely used in sculpture, and as a decorative building

material.
Selection criteria of stone

 The quality of the stone can be assessed by striking the stone lightly with

a hammer.

 A bell-like high sound indicates good quality, and a dull low sound indicates
bad quality. This test is very important when using sedimentary rocks.

 Another test can be done by laying the stone in water, take it out

after one day, let it dry out, clean it from organic matter and put it
back into the water again. Continue with this procedure for at
least two weeks.

 If the stone does not break into pieces or develop cracks, it is

considered adequate for construction purposes.

 HCB (Hollow concrete blocks)

 Hollow concrete blocks, also known as concrete masonry units (CMUs) or

concrete bricks, are building materials commonly used in construction for

their strength, durability, and thermal properties.

 They are lighter than bricks, easier to place and also confer economics in

foundation cost and consumption of cement.

 In comparison to conventional bricks, they offer the advantages of

uniform quality, faster speed of construction, lower labor involvement

and longer durability.

 They are commonly used in load-bearing walls, partition walls, and

landscaping blocks.
 The standard sizes of hollow concrete blocks

(a) 400mm x 200mm x 200mm

(b) 400mm x 200mm x 150mm

(c) 400mm x 200mm x 100mm

Raw Materials of HCB

The raw materials for the production of hollow concrete blocks are cement ,
Sand and Stone chips.
Production process

1. Mixing

 The raw materials are proportionally mixed in batching plants to achieve

the desired consistency and quality of the concrete mixture.

2. Molding

 The mixed concrete is then poured into molds, which are typically made

of steel or cast iron and are designed to produce the desired size and
shape of the blocks.
3. Compaction

 After filling the molds with the concrete mixture, the molds are

vibrated or compacted to remove air bubbles and ensure proper

consolidation of the mixture.

 This step helps in achieving uniform density and strength in the

finished blocks.
4. Curing

 Once compacted, the concrete blocks are cured to allow the cement to

hydrate, harden, and forming a strong bond between the particles.

 Which is the process of maintaining adequate moisture and temperature

conditions to facilitate hydration,

 Which is the chemical reaction between cement and water that binds the

concrete mixture together.

 Proper curing is essential for achieving the desired strength, durability,

and resistance to cracking in concrete structures.

 Curing can be done through various methods such as steam curing,

wet curing (e.g., spraying water on the blocks), or simply allowing the
blocks to air cure over time.
4. Quality Control

 Quality control may involve testing the raw materials, monitoring the

mixing process, inspecting the molds, and conducting compression

tests on the finished blocks.

5. Packaging and Distribution

 Once cured and inspected, the hollow concrete blocks are typically

packaged, and prepared for distribution to construction sites or

storage facilities.
Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks

 Hollow concrete blocks have a variety of shapes and sizes, and they are commonly

used in construction projects for their low cost, ease of installation, and excellent
insulating properties.

 The basic known types of hollow concrete block are:

1. Standard Hollow Concrete Blocks

 These are the most common type of hollow concrete block and are used in most

building applications. They are rectangular in shape and come in different sizes and
strengths.

 used for load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls, partitions, and other structural

elements.
2. Cellular Hollow Concrete Blocks

 These blocks have small circular voids or cells within the block, making them lighter

and easier to handle.

 They are commonly used in low-rise buildings and partitions, where weight is a

concern.

3. Perforated Hollow Concrete Blocks

 These blocks have holes or perforations in the block, which can be used to

enhance insulation properties, reduce the weight of the block, or provide

additional support for rebar or other reinforcing materials.

4. Lightweight Hollow Concrete Blocks

 These blocks are made from lightweight aggregates such as expanded clay or
shale;
 are used in applications where weight is a concern, such as in multi-story
buildings or in areas with poor soil conditions.
Mortar and Binder
 Mortar is a paste-like material used in masonry construction to

bind building blocks, such as bricks, stones, or concrete blocks,

together and to fill the gaps between them.

 The binder is the primary component of mortar responsible for

holding the mixture together and adhering to the building blocks.

 Requirements of mortar

 It should have good linkage with

bricks, stones.

 It should resist penetration of rain

water.

 It should be cheap, durable, and

workable.

 It should be set quickly.

 The joints formed by mortar should

not develop cracks.

Types of binder

Clay
 Clay is a natural binder that is used in ceramics, pottery, and

construction materials such as adobe bricks and earthen plaster.

Lime
 It is commonly used as a binder in traditional mortar and plaster.

 Used in traditional masonry for centuries due to its workability, flexibility,

and compatibility with historical building materials.

Gypsum

 It is commonly used as a binder in gypsum plaster, drywall, and other

construction materials due to its fire-resistant and soundproofing

properties.
Portland Cement

 is a hydraulic cement commonly used as a binder in concrete and mortar.

 It is made by heating limestone, clay, and other materials in a kiln and

grinding the resulting clinker into a fine powder.

 Portland cement binds aggregates (such as sand and gravel) together to

form concrete, which is widely used in construction for buildings, roads,

bridges, and other structures.
Storage of cement

 In general cement should not be stored over long periods of time (more

than two months). Moisture destroys cement, therefore it must be stored

dry.

 A storing place with a secure roof and good ventilation is required. It is

recommended to use a separate store room.

 Avoid contact of the cement bags with outer walls and floor. Walls and

floors could be a source of moisture.

 Wood and Timber

Wood
 Wood is a versatile and commonly used building material derived

from trees.

 Which refers to the organic material that forms the structural tissue

of trees and shrubs.

Timber
 Which refers to wood that has been processed or prepared for use in

construction or other structural applications.

 It typically refers to wood that has been sawn, planed, and cut to

standardized dimensions for use in building structures, framing, or

woodworking projects.
 Types of wood
Hardwood

 Hardwoods come from broad-leaved deciduous trees such as oak, maple,

and cherry.

 They are typically denser and more durable than softwoods, making them

suitable for high-quality furniture, flooring, and decorative applications.

Softwood

They are generally less dense and more affordable than hardwoods, making
them commonly used in framing and for general construction applications.
Applicability of wood

 Wood framing - is a common method of constructing the skeletal

framework of residential and commercial buildings.

 It provides structural support and flexibility in design.

 Flooring - Wood flooring is popular for its durability, warmth, and

aesthetic appeal.

 Common types of wood flooring include hardwood planks,

engineered wood, and laminate.

 Doors and Windows - Wood is commonly used for doors, window

frames, and trim due to its strength, durability, and ability to be

customized to fit various styles and sizes.
 Furniture and Cabinetry - Wood is widely used in furniture making and

cabinetry due to its strength, workability, and natural beauty.

 Decorative Elements - Wood is used for decorative elements to enhance

the interior and exterior of buildings.

 Properties of Wood

 Wood is a strong and durable building material when properly

maintained and protected from moisture, insects, and decay.

 Workability - Wood is easy to work with using common tools such as

saws, drills, and sanders.

 It can be easily cut, shaped, and joined to create various structural and

decorative elements.

 Insulation - Wood has natural insulating properties, providing thermal

and acoustic insulation in buildings.

 This helps regulate indoor temperature and reduce energy consumption.

 Aesthetic Appeal - Wood is valued for its natural beauty, warmth, and

texture.
 Adobe/Rammed earth

 Rammed earth is a building technique in which a wet mixture of mud,

sand and gravel is poured in a formwork.

 is compacted layer by layer.

 Because of the layer approach, rammed earth constructions are

characterized by a horizontally striped pattern.

 Rammed earth construction is a technique used to build walls by

compacting layers of soil, gravel, sand, and a small amount of cement

within a formwork.

 This process creates solid and durable walls that offer thermal mass,

energy efficiency, and aesthetic appeal.

 Originally, the ramming was manually performed but in the 20th

century, electric and pneumatic rams were developed.

 Today the technique has evolved in such a way that the rammed earth

constructions can specifically be designed to achieve high compressive

strength and fulfil aesthetic requirements.

 For the execution, sophisticated materials and machinery, such as

laminate plywood, aluminum form supports, conveyor belts, pneumatic

air compressors, mixing machines and tractors, can be used.
 Types of rammed earth

1. Traditional Rammed Earth

 Traditional rammed earth construction involves compacting layers of

locally sourced soil mixed with aggregates such as gravel, sand, and clay.

2. Stabilized Rammed Earth

 Stabilized rammed earth incorporates stabilizing agents such as cement,

lime, or asphalt emulsion into the soil mixture to improve the strength,
durability, and weather resistance of the rammed earth walls.

 Stabilized rammed earth is commonly used in areas with poor soil

quality or to enhance the structural performance of the walls.

3. Soil-Cement Rammed Earth

 Soil-cement rammed earth combines soil with a relatively high

percentage of cement to create a stronger and more durable rammed

earth material.

 The addition of cement increases the compressive strength and reduces the

susceptibility to erosion and weathering.

4. Insulated Rammed Earth

 Insulated rammed earth construction involves incorporating insulating

materials such as expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam or rigid insulation

panels into the wall assembly to improve thermal performance and
energy efficiency.

 Insulated rammed earth walls offer enhanced comfort and reduced

heating and cooling costs.

5. Prefabricated Rammed Earth Panels

 Prefabricated rammed earth panels are precast or preassembled

rammed earth units that can be transported to the construction site and
assembled into walls.

 Prefabricated panels offer faster construction times and improved

quality control compared to traditional on-site rammed earth

construction.
6. Decorative Rammed Earth

 Which involves using different colors, textures, and patterns in the soil

mixture to create visually striking and aesthetically pleasing rammed

earth walls.

 Decorative techniques such as layering, patterning, and

incorporating aggregates or pigments can enhance the appearance of

rammed earth structures.
 Production process of rammed earth

1. Selection of Soil

 The first step in the production process is selecting the appropriate soil

or earth mixture for rammed earth construction.

 The soil should have a good balance of clay, silt, sand, and gravel particles to

ensure proper compaction and structural stability.

 Soil with too much organic matter or high levels of moisture may not be

suitable for rammed earth construction.

2. Soil Preparation

 Once the soil is selected, it needs to be prepared for rammed earth

construction.

 This may involve screening or sifting the soil to remove large rocks, debris,

and organic matter that could interfere with compaction.

 Additionally, the soil may be mixed with water to achieve the optimal

moisture content for compaction.

3. Formwork Construction

 Formwork, also known as shuttering or molds, is constructed to define

the shape and dimensions of the rammed earth walls.

 Formwork can be made from various materials such as wood, metal, or

recycled materials.

 It is assembled to create the desired wall thickness and height, with openings

left for doors, windows, and other openings.

4. Layering and Compaction

 The soil mixture is then placed in the formwork in layers, typically

ranging from 4 to 12 inches thick, depending on the design and

structural requirements.

 Each layer is compacted using manual or mechanical tampers to achieve the

desired density and strength.

 Compaction is critical to ensure that the soil particles are tightly packed and

bonded together.
5. Curing and Drying

 After the walls are fully compacted, they are left to cure and dry

naturally. This process allows the soil mixture to harden and gain
strength over time.

 The duration of curing and drying can vary depending on factors such as

climate, humidity, and soil composition.

 Adequate curing is essential to ensure the long-term durability and stability

of the rammed earth walls.

6. Finishing

 Finished with various techniques to enhance their appearance and

durability.

 This can include smoothing the surface with a trowel, applying protective

coatings or sealants, or

 incorporating decorative elements such as colored pigments or aggregates.

 Advantages and disadvantages of rammed earth

Advantages

 available locally - contributing to sustainable development

 demands a lot of semi-skilled manpower, can be built personally by

the homeowner,
 monetary and environmental costs - much lower than of most other

materials
 Have thermal comfort and high level of moisture resistance

 Maintains a balanced indoor climate without extremes of

temperature
 low fire risk (have high fire-resistance property) and virtually sound

proof
Disadvantages

 variations in the soil quality

 time and expense required for soil testing

 Curing rammed earth takes a long time.

 Changes are hard to make after a wall is built.

 Rammed earth is limited to low-rise buildings and square shapes.

Thank you