Digital Logic Design

Chapter 1:
Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

1
 Basic Terminologies

• Digit: One of the elements that collectively form a

system of numeration, "0 and 1 are digits“

• Numeration: The act of counting; reciting numbers in ascending order

• Digital: Displaying numbers rather than scale positions, that represents

magnitudes in discrete units of a physical quantity. Digital signal uses
discrete 0 and 1 to represent information.

• Discrete: Constituting a separate entity or part

• Discreteness: The state of being distinct
• Analog: Of a circuit or device in which the value of a data item is
represented by a continuously variable physical quantity
 Analog

• Signal: An electric quantity (voltage, current, field strength) whose

modulation represents coded information about the source from which it
comes

• Analog Systems use continuous signals

• with varying magnitude.

• Digital Systems use square waves.

• Analog systems use sine waves.

• Digital systems first transform the analog waves to limited set of numbers
and then record them as digital square waves.
 Basic Terminologies

Digital electronics: of a circuit or device that represents magnitudes in

discrete units of a physical quantity, as compared to using an analogue
system

Digital computer: type of computer used to process information with

quantities using digits, usually using the binary number system.

Digital System is a system in which signals have a finite number of

discrete values.

Binary: Of or pertaining to a number system which has 2 as its base

Logic: the system of operations performed by a computer that underlies

the machine's representation of logical operations
 Digital Computer
• The digital computer consists of the following components:
– Memory unit
– Central processing unit
– Input and output units
• The digital computer can perform both arithmetic and logical
operations.

• Arithmetic operations is a branch of mathematics, that involves the

study of numbers, operation of numbers that are useful in all the other
branches of mathematics. It basically comprises operations such
as Addition, Subtraction etc.
• Logical operations: There are three logical operators: and , or , and
not .
 Digital Computer

Inputs: Keyboard, mouse, Outputs: CRT, LCD,

modem, microphone modem, speakers

- Stored program
- Control unit: IC: Directs operations within a computer's processor: How
to respond to instructions received from a program
- Arithmetic computations and logical operations
 Digital System
• Digital Systems represent systems that understand, represent and manipulate
discrete elements
– A discrete element is any set that has a finite number of elements, for
example 10 decimal digits, 26 letters of the alphabet, etc.

• Discrete elements are represented by signals, such as electrical signals

(voltages and currents)

• The signals in most electronic digital systems use two discrete values,
termed binary

• Digital System takes a set of discrete information inputs and discrete internal
information (system state) and generates a set of discrete information outputs
 Digital System

• Digital computers
– Many scientific, industrial and commercial applications
• Digital systems
– Digital Camera, Mobile Phone
– Electronic Calculators, PDA's, Tabs
– Digital TV
• Discrete information-processing systems
• Why binary?
– Reliability: A transistor circuit is either on or off (two stable
states)

– Transistor: a semiconductor device capable of amplification

 Digital System: State
• Digital systems use signals that have two distinct values and circuit elements that have two
stable states.

• The corresponding binary voltage levels in digital circuits have two states: a high-voltage
state corresponding to logical 1 and a low voltage state corresponding to logical 0.

• System States: When memory is being allocated or freed in the case of a system call that
gets or releases memory (while a system memory management function is called).

• A logic state is the logic value of a circuit, which is momentarily preserved.

Discrete
Discrete
Information
Inputs
Processing
System Discrete
Outputs

System State
 Digital System: State
•The binary information must have a
physical existence in some medium for
storing individual bits

•The state of a circuit is purely the collection

of all of the current signals within that
circuit.

•Digital circuits/ electronics : Deals with

digital signals to perform the various task to
meet requirement. The input signal applied
to these circuits is of digital form, which is
represented in 0's and 1's binary language
format.

• A digital circuit converts a series of

numbers into another series of numbers. It
is designed to give only one output for any
given input, and the output will either be 0V
or 5V. It is a circuit that uses discrete values
of voltage to represent data.
 Digital System: Memory Cell

•A Binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states

and is capable of storing one bit (0 or 1) of information.

•The input to the cell receives excitation signals that set

it to one of the two states.
•The output of the cell is a physical quantity that
distinguishes between the two states.

•The information stored in a cell is 1 when the cell is in

one stable state and 0 when the cell is in the other stable
state.

•A system is described as stateful if it is designed to

remember preceding events or user interactions; the
remembered information is called the state of the
system.

•The set of states a system can occupy is known as its

state space.
 Signal

• A collection of information variables mapped to some physical

quantity
• For digital systems, the quantities take on discrete values
• Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values in
digital systems
• The binary values are represented abstractly by digits 0 and 1
• Other physical signals represented by 1 and 0?
– CPU Voltage
– Disk Magnetic Field Direction
– CD Surface Pits/Light
– Dynamic RAM Electrical Charge
 Why Digital Components?

• Why do we choose to use digital components?

– The main reason for using digital components is that they can
easily be programmed, allowing a single hardware unit to be
used for many different purposes
– Advances in circuit technology decrease the price of
technology dramatically
– Digital integrated circuits can perform at speeds of hundreds
of millions of operations per second
– Error-checking and correction can be used to ensure the
reliability of the machine
 Binary Digits

Decimal Binary Code

• A binary digit, called a bit, is 0 0000
represented by one of two values: 0 or 1 1 0001
2 0010
• Discrete elements can be represented by 3 0011
groups of bits called binary codes. For 4 0100
example the decimal digits 0 to 9 are 5 0101
represented as follows:
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
 Differing Bases

• In order to represent numbers of different bases, we surround a

number in parenthesis and then place a subscript with the base
of the number
– A decimal number (9233)10
– A binary number (11011)2
– A base 5 number (3024)5
• Decimal number digits are 0 through 9
• Binary number digits are 0 through 1
• Base (radix) r number digits are 0 through r - 1
 Commonly Occurring Bases

Name Radix Digits (0 through r-1)

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 Decimal Numbers

• A decimal number such as 5723 represents a quantity equal to:

– 5 thousands
– 7 hundreds
– 2 tens
– 3 ones
• Or, it can be written as:
– 5 X 103 + 7 X 102 + 2 * 101 + 3 * 100
• The 5, 7, 2, and 3 represent coefficients
• The decimal number system is said to be of base or radix 10
because it uses the 10 digits (0..9) and the coefficients are
multiplied by powers of 10.
 Binary Numbers

• The binary system contains only two values in the

allowed coefficients (0 and 1)
• The binary system uses powers of 2 as the multipliers
for the coefficients.
• For example, we can represent the binary number
10111.01 as:
– 1 X 24 + 0 X 23 + 1 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 1 X 20 + 0 X 2-1 + 1 X 2-2 = 23.25
 Understanding Binary Numbers
• Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits):
– 0 and 1
• How many items does a binary number represent?
– (1011)2 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 = (11)10
• What about fractions?
– (110.10)2 = 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 0x2-2
• Group of eight bits is called a byte
– (11001001) 2
• Group of four bits is called a nibble
– (1101) 2
• Group of sixteen bits is called a half word
– (1011011010011001) 2
• Group of thirty two bits is called a word
• Group of sixty four bits is called a double word
 Understanding Binary Numbers

• MSB – most significant bit MSB LSB

• 1011001010011100
LSB – least significant bit
15 0
• Bit numbering

• Each digit (bit) is either 1 or 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

• Each bit represents a power of 2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
 Why Use Binary Numbers?

° Easy to represent 0 and 1 using electrical values.

° Possible to tolerate noise.
° Easy to transmit data
° Easy to build binary circuits.
° Binary: Circuit design with binary quantities,
“on” and “off” representing 1 and 0 (i.e., true
and false), uses the logic of Boolean algebra.

AND Gate

Volt: A unit of potential equal to the 1

potential difference between two 0
points on a conductor carrying a 0
current of 1 ampere when the power
dissipated between the two points is
1 watt
Powers of Two
n 2n n 2n n 2n n 2n
0 1 16 65,536 32 4,294,967,296 48 281,474,976,710,656
1 2 17 131,072 33 8,589,934,592 49 562,949,953,421,312
2 4 18 262,144 34 17,179,869,184 50 1,125,899,906,842,620
3 8 19 524,288 35 34,359,738,368 51 2,251,799,813,685,250
4 16 20 1,048,576 36 68,719,476,736 52 4,503,599,627,370,500
5 32 21 2,097,152 37 137,438,953,472 53 9,007,199,254,740,990
6 64 22 4,194,304 38 274,877,906,944 54 18,014,398,509,482,000
7 128 23 8,388,608 39 549,755,813,888 55 36,028,797,018,964,000
8 256 24 16,777,216 40 1,099,511,627,776 56 72,057,594,037,927,900
9 512 25 33,554,432 41 2,199,023,255,552 57 144,115,188,075,856,000
10 1,024 26 67,108,864 42 4,398,046,511,104 58 288,230,376,151,712,000
11 2,048 27 134,217,728 43 8,796,093,022,208 59 576,460,752,303,423,000
12 4,096 28 268,435,456 44 17,592,186,044,416 60 1,152,921,504,606,850,000
13 8,192 29 536,870,912 45 35,184,372,088,832 61 2,305,843,009,213,690,000
14 16,384 30 1,073,741,824 46 70,368,744,177,664 62 4,611,686,018,427,390,000
15 32,768 31 2,147,483,648 47 140,737,488,355,328 63 9,223,372,036,854,780,000
n 2n n 2n n 2n n 2n
0 1 16 65,536 32 4,294,967,296 48 281,474,976,710,656
1 2 17 131,072 33 8,589,934,592 49 562,949,953,421,312
2 4 18 262,144 34 17,179,869,184 50 1,125,899,906,842,620
3 8 19 524,288 35 34,359,738,368 51 2,251,799,813,685,250
4 16 20 1,048,576 36 68,719,476,736 52 4,503,599,627,370,500
5 32 21 2,097,152 37 137,438,953,472 53 9,007,199,254,740,990
6 64 22 4,194,304 38 274,877,906,944 54 18,014,398,509,482,000
7 128 3223 bits wide word
8,388,608 39 can store an unsigned
549,755,813,888 55 magnitude
36,028,797,018,964,000
8 256 24 16,777,216 4,294,967,295 = (4 GB56-1) 72,057,594,037,927,900
40 1,099,511,627,776
9 512 6425bits wide word
33,554,432 41 can store an unsigned
2,199,023,255,552 57 magnitude
144,115,188,075,856,000
10 1,024 26 18,446,744,073,709,600,000
67,108,864 42 4,398,046,511,104 = (16288,230,376,151,712,000
58 EB -1)
11 2,048 27 134,217,728 43 8,796,093,022,208 59 576,460,752,303,423,000
12 4,096 28 268,435,456 44 17,592,186,044,416 60 1,152,921,504,606,850,000
13 8,192 29 536,870,912 45 35,184,372,088,832 61 2,305,843,009,213,690,000
14 16,384 30 1,073,741,824 46 70,368,744,177,664 62 4,611,686,018,427,390,000
15 32,768 31 2,147,483,648 47 140,737,488,355,328 63 9,223,372,036,854,780,000
 Important powers of 2

210 is referred to as Kilo, called "K"

220 is referred to as Mega, called "M"

230 is referred to as Giga, called "G"

240 is referred to as Tera, called “T”

250 is referred to as Peta, called “P”

260 is referred to as Exha, called “E”

 Octal Numbers

• The octal number system is a base-8 system that

contains the coefficient values of 0 to 7.
• The octal system uses powers of 8 as the multipliers
for the coefficients.
• For example, we can represent the octal number 72032
as:
7 X 84 + 2 X 83 + 0 X 82 + 3 X 81 + 2 X 80 = (29722)10
 Hexadecimal Numbers

• The hexadecimal number system is a base-16 system

that contains the coefficient values of 0 to 9 and A to F.
The letters A through F represent the coefficient values
of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15, respectively.
• The hexadecimal system uses powers of 16 as the
multipliers for the coefficients.
• For example, we can represent the hexadecimal
number C34D as:
– 12 X 163 + 3 X 162 + 4 X 161 + 13 X 160 = (49997)10
Number Examples
 Conversion between bases

• To convert from one base to other:

– Convert the integer portion
– Convert the fraction portion
– Join the two with radix point
Octal (base 8)

Binary (base 2) Decimal (base 10)

Hexadecimal
(base16)

Radix point is the symbol used to separate the integer part of a number from its fractional
part.
 • Convert the integer portion
r-Decimal Conversion • Convert the fraction portion
• Join the two with radix point

• Conversion of a number in base r to decimal is done by

expanding the number in a power series and adding all the
terms.
• For example, (C34D)16 is converted to decimal:
12 X 163 + 3 X 162 + 4 X 161 + 13 X 160 = (49997)10
• (11010.11)2 is converted to decimal:
1 X 24 + 1 X 23 + 0 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 0 X 20 + 1 X 2-1 + 1 X 2-2 = 26.75

• In general (Number)r =  i  n 1
i 0
 
ai  r i 
j  1
a
j  m j
 r j

(Integer Portion) + (Fraction Portion)

Radix point is the symbol used to separate the integer part of a number from its fractional
part.
 Decimal-r Conversion
• If a decimal number has a radix point, it is necessary to separate
the number into an integer part and a fraction part.
• The conversion of a decimal integer into a number in base-r is
done by dividing the number and all successive quotients by r
and accumulating the remainders in reverse order of
computation.
• For example, to convert decimal 13 to binary:

Integer
Remainder Coefficient
Quotient

13/2 = 6 + 1 a0 = 1
6/2 = 3 + 0 a1 = 0
3/2 = 1 + 1 a2 = 1
1/2 = 0 + 1 a3 = 1

Answer (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

 Decimal-r Conversion

• Convert (37)10 to binary

(37)10 = 100101
 Decimal-r Conversion (converting fraction)

• To convert the fraction portion repeatedly multiply the fraction by

the radix and save the integer digits that result. The process
continued until the fraction becomes 0 or the number of digits
have sufficient accuracy. The new radix fraction digits are the
integer digits in computed order.
• For example convert fraction (0.6875)10 to base 2
0.6875 * 2 = 1.3750 integer = 1
0.3750 * 2 = 0.7500 integer = 0
0.7500 * 2 = 1.5000 integer = 1
0.5000 * 2 = 1.0000 integer = 1

Answer = (0.1011)2
 Decimal-r Conversion (converting fraction)

• When converting fractions, we must use multiplication

rather than division. The new radix fraction digits are
the integer digits in computed order.
 Decimal-r Conversion (converting fraction)

• Convert 0.8125 decimal to

binary.
– To convert the decimal
0.8125 to binary, we
multiply by the radix 2.
– (0.1101)2