Thermodynamics:

An Engineering Approach

9th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A.

Boles, Mehmet Kanoglu
Copyright © 2020 McGraw Hill , All Rights Reserved.

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CHAPTER 2

ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND

GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS

McGraw-Hill | 2
 Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy
transfer by heat.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms
of mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and
mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system.
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control
volume carries energy across the control surface in addition to any
energy transfer across the control surface that may be in the form of
heat and/or work.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
• Discuss the implications of energy conversion on the environment.

3
INTRODUCTION
If we take the entire room—including
the air and the refrigerator (or fan)—
as the system, which is an adiabatic
closed system since the room is
well-sealed and well-insulated, the
only energy interaction involved is
the electrical energy crossing the
system boundary and entering the
room.
As a result of the conversion of
electric energy consumed by the
device to heat, the room
temperature will rise.

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FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and
nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a
system.
Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total
energy.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as
a whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as
kinetic and potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of
energy

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Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a
result of its motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a
result of its elevation in a gravitational field.

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 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy per unit mass

Potential energy

Potential energy per unit mass

Total energy
of a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Energy flow rate

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10
Some Physical Insight
to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the
internal energy of a system associated
with the kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal energy
associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous
amount of energy associated with the
strong bonds within the nucleus of the
atom itself.

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Thermal = Sensible + Latent
Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

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The total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a
system, and thus can be viewed as the static forms of energy.
The forms of energy not stored in a system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as energy interactions.
The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the system
boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or
lost by a system during a process.
The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed
system are
- heat transfer
- work
The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy
interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature
difference. Otherwise it is work.

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More on Nuclear Energy
The best known fission reaction involves the split of the uranium
atom (the U-235 isotope) into other elements and is commonly
used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants, to power
nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers, and even to power
spacecraft as well as building nuclear bombs.
Nuclear energy by fusion is released when two small nuclei
combine into a larger one.
The uncontrolled fusion reaction was achieved in the early 1950s,
but all the efforts since then to achieve controlled fusion by
massive lasers, powerful magnetic fields, and electric currents to
generate power have failed.

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Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy

of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or
a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

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Heat transfer per unit mass

Amount of heat transfer when

heat transfer rate is constant

Amount of heat transfer

when heat transfer rate
changes with time

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Historical Background on Heat
Caloric theory: It asserts that heat is
a fluidlike substance called the
caloric that is a massless, colorless,
odorless, and tasteless substance
that can be poured from one body
into another
Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as
tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and
molecules.

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Heat transfer mechanisms
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction between
particles.
Convection: The transfer of energy between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work: The energy transfer associated
with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an
electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work
interactions
Formal sign convention: Heat transfer
to a system and work done by a system
are positive; heat transfer from a system
and work done on a system are
negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use
the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction.
This is the primary approach in this text.
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Work done per
unit mass

26
Heat vs. Work
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).

Properties are point functions

have exact differentials (d).

Path functions have

inexact differentials ( )

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Electrical Work

Electrical work

Electrical
power

When potential difference

and current change with time

When potential difference

and current remain constant

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 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

There are two requirements for a work interaction

between a system and its surroundings to exist:
- there must be a force acting on the boundary.
- the boundary must move.

Work = Force  Distance

When force is not constant

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Shaft Work
A force F acting through a moment
arm r generates a torque T

This force acts through a distance

s

Shaft work

The power transmitted through the shaft

is the shaft work done per unit time

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When the length of the spring changes
by a differential amount dx under the
Spring Work
influence of a force F, the work done is

For linear elastic springs, the displacement

x is proportional to the force applied

k: spring constant (kN/m)

Spring work

x1 and x2: the initial and the

final displacements

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Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

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Work Associated
with the Stretching
of a Liquid Film
Surface tension work

36
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

1. The work transfer needed

to raise a body is equal to
the change in the potential
energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed
to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the
kinetic energy of the body.

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Nonmechanical Forms of Work
Electrical work: The generalized force is the voltage
(the electrical potential) and the generalized
displacement is the electrical charge.

Magnetic work: The generalized force is the magnetic

field strength and the generalized displacement is the
total magnetic dipole moment.

Electrical polarization work: The generalized force is

the electric field strength and the generalized
displacement is the polarization of the medium.

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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics
(the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis
for studying the relationships
among the various forms of
energy and energy interactions.
The first law states that energy
can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can
only change forms.
First Law: For all adiabatic
processes between two specified
states of a closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless
of the nature of the closed system
and the details of the process.
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 Energy Balance

The net change (increase or

decrease) in the total energy
of the system during a process
is equal to the difference
between the total energy
entering and the total energy
leaving the system during that
process.

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 Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

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Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

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Mechanisms • Heat transfer A closed mass involves only
of energy • Work transfer
heat transfer and work.
transfer: • Mass flow

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ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in
thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy
conversion or transfer process is accomplished.

Efficiency of a water
heater: The ratio of the
energy delivered to the
house by hot water to
the energy supplied to
the water heater.

47
Heating value of the fuel: The amount of heat released when a
unit amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and
the combustion products are cooled to the room temperature.

Lower heating value (LHV): When the water in the combustion

gases is a vapor.

Higher heating value (HHV): When the water in the combustion

gases is completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization
is also recovered.

Combustion equipment efficiency

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The efficiency of space heating systems of residential and
commercial buildings is usually expressed in terms of the annual
fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE), which accounts for the
combustion equipment efficiency as well as other losses such as
heat losses to unheated areas and start-up and cooldown losses.

The AFUE of most new heating systems is about 85 percent,

although the AFUE of some old heating systems is under 60
percent.

The AFUE of some new high-efficiency furnaces exceeds 96

percent, but the high cost of such furnaces cannot be justified for
locations with mild to moderate winters.

Such high efficiencies are achieved by reclaiming most of the heat

in the flue gases, condensing the water vapor, and discharging the
flue gases at temperatures as low as 38C (or 100F) instead of
about 200C (or 400F) for the conventional models.

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Overall efficiency of a power plant

Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy.
Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output to
the mechanical power input.
Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net shaft
work output of the turbine to the heat input to the working fluid.

The overall efficiencies are about 25–30 percent for

gasoline automotive engines, 35–40 percent for diesel
engines, and up to 60 percent for large power plants.

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Lighting efficacy: The amount
of light output in lumens per W of
electricity consumed.

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Using energy-efficient appliances
conserve energy.
It helps the environment by
reducing the amount of pollutants
emitted to the atmosphere during the
combustion of fuel.
The combustion of fuel produces
• carbon dioxide, causes global
warming
• nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons, cause smog
• carbon monoxide, toxic
• sulfur dioxide, causes acid
rain.

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Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
Mechanical efficiency

The effectiveness of the conversion process between the mechanical

work supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is
expressed by the pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

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Pump-Motor
overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator
overall efficiency

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59
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

The conversion of energy from one form to another often

affects the environment and the air we breathe in many
ways, and thus the study of energy is not complete without
considering its impact on the environment.

Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are

responsible for smog, acid rain, and global warming.

The environmental pollution has reached such high levels

that it became a serious threat to vegetation, wild life,
and human health.

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Ozone and Smog
Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous
other chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot
and dust, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other
hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight on hot calm
days to form ground-level ozone.
Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy
tissue.
It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and
aggravates respiratory problems such as asthma.
The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon monoxide, which is a colorless,
odorless, poisonous gas. It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
It deprives the body’s organs from getting enough oxygen by binding with the red
blood cells that would otherwise carry oxygen. It is fatal at high levels.
Suspended particulate matter such as dust and soot are emitted by vehicles and
industrial facilities. Such particles irritate the eyes and the lungs.
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Acid Rain
The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2),
which is an air pollutant.
The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants that burn high-
sulfur coal.
Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions since gasoline and
diesel fuel also contain small amounts of sulfur.
The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with water vapor and other
chemicals high in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to form
sulfuric and nitric acids.
The acids formed usually dissolve in the suspended water droplets in
clouds or fog.
These acid-laden droplets, which can be as acidic as lemon juice, are
washed from the air on to the soil by rain or snow. This is known as
acid rain.

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The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming
and Climate Change

Greenhouse effect: Glass

allows the solar radiation to
enter freely but blocks the
infrared radiation emitted by the
interior surfaces. This causes a
rise in the interior temperature
as a result of the thermal
energy buildup in a space (i.e.,
car).
The surface of the earth, which
warms up during the day as a
result of the absorption of solar
energy, cools down at night by
radiating part of its energy into
deep space as infrared
radiation.
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Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and trace
amounts of some other gases such as methane and
nitrogen oxides act like a blanket and keep the earth
warm at night by blocking the heat radiated from the
earth. The result is global warming.

These gases are called “greenhouse gases,” with

CO2 being the primary component.

CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels such as

coal, oil, and natural gas.

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A 1995 report: The earth has already warmed about 0.5°C during
the last century, and they estimate that the earth’s temperature will
rise another 2°C by the year 2100.
A rise of this magnitude can cause severe changes in weather
patterns with storms and heavy rains and flooding at some parts
and drought in others, major floods due to the melting of ice at the
poles, loss of wetlands and coastal areas due to rising sea levels,
and other negative results.

How to minimize global warming?

• Improved energy efficiency
• energy conservation
• using renewable energy sources

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The average car produces several times
its weight in CO2 every year (it is driven
20,000 km a year, consumes 2300 liters
of gasoline, and produces 2.5 kg of CO2
per liter).

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 Summary
Forms of energy
Energy transfer by heat
Energy transfer by work
Mechanical forms of work
The first law of thermodynamics
Energy conversion efficiencies
Energy and environment

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