Chapter 1.

Introduction :
What is the definition and description of parasitology ?
• Study of parasites
• An animal can be a parasite when lives with different kind of
animal/plant/host.
• Must have some kind of benefit also harmful to the host.
• None animal can not be a parasite alone
• Is animal association / individual cooperation with different
species, herds, flocks etc
• The animal association also belongs to different zoological
species (parasitism, commensalism, symbiosis etc).
• Our interest is parasitism association (always some harm done to
the host and vise versa).
• The parasitic association depends on the characteristic of the
parasite ie temporary and permanent (external & internal).
•Have many means of transmission depending on their
nature/species, type of host etc and how?
This is through major openings .
1.Mouth – with feed or water
2. Anus – eg. Oxyuris ( pin worm)
3. Excretory and reproductive – eg Equiperdium (Dourine), 4.Skin –
eg. Schistosoma, hook worm, bunostomum
5. Insects/arthropod blood feeders– eg. Trypanosomes by biting flies,
tsetse; piroplasmosis by ticks
6.Transplacental – eg. In dog Toxocara,in women toxoplasmosis by
cat.
7. Trans ovarian– eg. in the vector itself babesia
Chapter 2. Classissification, taxonomy &
terminologies of parasitology
2.1 Top general are medical major to human, veterinary to
domesticated and wild animals, soil and plant.

2.2 Veterinary parasitology : generally is classified in

heliminthology, protozoology & entomology/arachnilogy.
Further this is followed by taxonomic tree ie
systematically on similarity of morphology that include
evolutionary process. These are
 Animal kingdom
1. Helminthology – phyllum nemathelminthes, class
nematoda that include 10 super families; phyllum
acanthocephala; phyllum platyhelminthes, class
trematoda, subclass digenia that include 7 families
and class cestoda,order cyclophylidea that include 7
families and order pseudophyllidea
2. Entomology – phyllum arthropoda:
2.1 class insecta, order diptera (that contains 3
suborders; suborder nematocera with 4 families—
ceratopogonidae/midges; simulidae/black flies;
psychodidae/sand fly; clucidae/mosquitoes , suborder
brachycera with 1 family tabanidae/horse fly &
cyclorrhapha with 4 families---- mucidae/house &
stable flies; calliphoridae/blow flies;
hippobocidae/forest flies & keds; oestridae/bot flies).
order phthirapthera of 2 suborders called as
anopulara & mallophaga having different families
and order siphonoptera.

2.2 class arachnida order acarina (mites/ borowing

& none having important families of sarcoptidae,
demodicidae & psoropidae, deramnyssidae
respectively)& ticks that have 2 families ixodidae &
argasidae) and lastly classes of Pentastomida &
Crustacae (important IH mainly for fish parasites).
3. Protozoology – with one phyllum called
protozoa that contain
3.1 Sub phyllum called sarcomastigophora with 2
classes: sarcodina moving by pseudopodea e.g
Entamoeba & mastigophora which are with one or
more flagella ( generas of Trypanosomes,
Leishmania, Trichomonas, Histomonas, Giardia &
Hexamita)
3.2 Sub phyllum sporozoa (gliding movers, lifecycle
largely intracellular with asexual & sexual
reproduction) that contain 3 classes called as coccidia
( Eimeria, Isospora, Criyptosporidium, Toxosoplasma,
Sarcosyst, Besnotia, Hamondia, Hepatozoon )
piroplasimidia- blood parasite mainly tick vector
(Babesia, Theleria, Cytouaxzoon & haemosporidia
(Palsmodium, Haemoproteus, Luecocytozoon)
3.3 Sub phyllum ciliophora which are ciliated
(Balntidium) and finally microspora that contains
one order rickettsiaes (Encephalozoon). Thus all
further details will be seen in each part of
presentation.

Internationally the chief tax/nomen-culture in

cronological order assumes 1. Kingdom 2.Phyllum
3.Class 4.Order 5.Family 6.Genus However
depending as in some groups interval in b/n is large
intermediate taxes with their prefixes are being
developed.
In names colloquial forms are used without confusion
than anglicid group names such as ascarids,taenids
etc. As major for heliminthology taxon endings/fixes
are seen as follows but no accepted ending for
phyllum.
Taxon ending Colloquial Anglicid
Class -a nematoda nematode

Order -ida/idea rhabditida rhabditid

suborder -ata strongylata strongylate

Super family -oidea strongloidea strongloid

Family -idae stronglidae stronglid

Sub family -inae stronglinae Strongline

Term taxa strongyle does not refer to any recognizable category &
should never be used.
As genus species names are latin forms either need to be wrote in
italics/bolded & underlined but not to higher taxa. Genus name first
letter has to be in capital & species and sub in small letter. If genera /
genus has sub genus / sub genera is written in front & in parenthesis.
Short hand writings are not properly establish in genus of
parasitology like bacteriology.
Parasite names are most from geek or latin are expressing
morphology. For instance ourous (greek) word for tail so that Oxyuris
meaning pointed tail ; spirura--- spiral tail ; Akantha---
Acantacephala meaning thron hook ; -akis– Heterakis---pointed,
Ancylos- Ancylostoma– hooked ; Nema--Nematoda—thread; Ascaris
—worm;Schizein--Schistosoma– to divide; Taenia--- latin meaning
ribbon ;Fascia- Fasciola– band etc.
Subject relationships : veterinary parasitology is related in
morphological, functional & effects/damages of parasites
discussed in biology, medicine ,clinical diagnosis, clinical
pathology, anthropology & economics. Even the
morphological character can be related to pathology,
anatomy, histology , immunology, pharmacology &
physiology directly or indirectly. For example parasites
economic importance is highly related to injury/damage.
Damages can be categorized in to one category as direct
injury/blood lose, irritation & production of poisonous
substances. It can be acute or chronic. Irritation is more
observed from ecto-parasites or biting flies. And also indirect
which mainly related to disease transmission.
The second category is related to mechanical effect
such as exerting certain pressure on certain organs,
may be able to block certain vital channels ( bile
ducts, blood vessels, intestine, lymphatic vessel).
e.g : hydatid cyst, coenures. Even removal of
protein, intrinsic factors internal blood lose by
Facsiola, & Tania saginata, RBCs attacked by
babesia and super imposer of infection to bacteria
and viruses are major effects to be consider.
What are the developments of parasites in general
explanation? These are cyclical as source for transmission
and direct or mechanical that includes over all arrested
development that majorly seen on nematodes.
Major terminologies/concepts of veterinary
parasitology :
• Ecto & endo parasites : are classified in their ways of
adaptation of life as the name tells.
• Two categories of parasites (way they live in the host):
1. Obligatory – plant or animal parasite which can not
live in other way.
2. Facultative – can live as parasite even if not host is
available/can live independently eg. strongloid species,
blow fly larvae.
 Final or definitive H/FH – in which the adult reproducing
stage of the parasite occurs. Example many of
trematodes,cestodes etc
 Prime host--- is an animal in which most commonly found eg.
Fasciola spp in cattle and sheep and goat how about human,
equine etc
 Intermediate H/IH -- an animal in which part of the lifecycle of
the parasite/immature phase/ is being spent eg. snail
 Transport host/TH -- is part of immature phase but no
development occurs eg. earth worm for some nematode larvae
 Paratenic host -- an animal that has larvae stage of the parasite
can not rid of it due to encapsulated.
Assignment among your self : what is the relationship with IH
&TH and give different example.
Thus larvae development depends upon ingestion of the final
host eg. Toxoplasma gondi. Cat FH site intestine, feces
ingested by rat( encapsulated) & rat eat by cat.
- Reservoir host – an animal where parasite infestation may
make pass to other domesticated animal.Usullay are wild.Eg.
Assignment for all group ? Sometimes one domesticated
animal can also be reservoir to the same type. Is this host is
also IH ?
- Prepatent period/PPP – is the time b/n entry in to the FH &
demonstration of the parasite with in the host.
- Binomics – are external environment requirements of
parasites. These are temp.,humudity, nutrition,rainfall,PH.All
help for survival & functional effectivness.Eg. Fasciola 22-26
centigrade & 85% humudity.
 Hermaphrodite – both sex in one parasite.
 Larva – immature form of different parasites . In nematodes
different stages of larvae are designated as L1,L2,L3,L4, L5
 Nature of reproduction – almost all parasites are reproduce
sexually & few modified sexual reproduction called as
parthenogenesis
 Oviparous parasites – lay eggs which pass from the body of
the host enclosed in their egg shell.
 Viviparous parasites – lay eggs in the host and hatch to
larva in the host.
 Ova-viparous parasites – lay eggs in the host & larva hatch
in the host having egg shell & pass out from host.
 Moult – changes from larvae to other developmental stage.
 Direct life cycle – only one host involved & has free phase
where by it undergoes some larval development as well
•Idirect lifecycle – larval development takes place in one or more
IHs.
Chapter 3. Trematoda
• Contains two subclasses named as Monogenea with direct
life cycle mainly is external parasites of fish and Digenea
which need IH is more important to veterinary medicine and
affects only vertebrates. Their major IHs are mollusks. Their
sites are primarily in bile ducts, intestine & vascular
systems (generally).
• Among many families major are Fasciolidae,
Schistomatidae, Paramphistomatidae & Dicrocoellidae.
• Morphology of digenea include two suckers at anterior end
used for attachment one around mouth & one ventral.
,integument often covered by spines and no body cavity but
organs in packed parenchyma,simple digestive system
contains pharynx, oesophagus & paired intestinal caeca. The
mature egg is usaually yellow due to protein and most have
operculum. Metabolism is primarily anaerobic.
- Lifecycle egg pasture with faeces miracidium in egg
cilliated pass out through operculum using enzyme
penetrate snail/mollusks & developed to sporocyst
( elongated sac like with many germinal cells) following
developed to radiae in snail hepato pancreas arise
cercariae ( young fluke with tail) having many daughter radaie
& many are released to environment harboring developed
cercariae. The emergence stimuli is mostly change in
temperature or light intensity. Once snail infected continue
to produce indefinitely till all hepato pancreas destroyed.
So attached to vegetation shade their tail & encysted as
metacercariae. Orally intered in to host by shading cyst in
intestine & penetrate intestine and migrate to its main organ
& site.
1.1Family Fasciolidae
Genus Fasciola : among the 3 genera is the most important.
-Species Fasciola hepatica in temperate & cooler highland
tropics & gicantica predominates in tropics
-H= most mammals & likely human but more important
sheep and cattle .
-IH= Lyminaea,most common L.truncatula ( in ancient time 26
snail species now decreasing because of nomenclature,
having resistant strains) now there are additional 6 species in
different parts of the world.
-Site= adult in bile duct & immature in liver parenchyma
Distribution = WW in Ethiopia as example can be seen as
follows: prevalence rates
Year Area Coprology % Postmortem %
1985-2005 Gamgofa 33 cattle
Bahirdar 49 -60 mainly cattle,15 mix
infestation
Holeta 82 cattle,14.2 mix infestation

Wolaita 28 cattle, 12shoats

Gondar 35-75 cattle 90
Bunobedelle 8 cattle,71gigantica
Nekempte 30 cattle 18 cattle,12 shoat
Kalu/Wollo 16 cattle,25 shoat
Dembidelo 22-77 cattle
Hararge 43 cattle 27 cattle slide# 21
continued
Assela 24 cattle 32-53 cattle,75 hepatica,18 gigantica

Jimma 48-57,15-27 hepatica,55-68 gigantica,30

mixed cattle
Walaita sodo 47 cattle

Wolliso 34 cattle,12-33 shoats 27,21 hepatica,4 gigantica,74 mixed

Kombolcha 53 cattle,50 hepatica,30 gigantica,15

mixed
Bale 34.6 cattle

Ziway 34 cattle,30 shoats 56.6 cattle, 38 shoats

Debrebrhan 80 both animals 81-88

Hawassa 72 cattle hepatica,14 gigantica

Eastern Shoa 85 cattle,70 shoats

Dredawa 148 cattle,12shoat

Eastern 48 cattle,53 shoats slide # 22

Gojam
Morphology: Gross--- leaf shaped,grey brown,length
3.5cm width 1cm(hepatica),up to 7.6 cm length &
width up to 1.3cm(gigantica),shoulder anterior
distinct(hepatica but not gigantica),pointed
end(hepatica) & rounded (gigantica). Microscopic---
look drawing and practice. Egg--
operculated,oval,yellow or with brown relatively
large compared to other helminthes ,hepatica has
size of 150x90 & gigantica 190x100 micrometer.
Differentiation from paraphistome egg is colourless
or light grey but its size the same.
Lifecycle : refer the general digenea and include the
following--- miracidium develop in 9 days in likely variable
suitability of temp10-26 centigrade, from miracidium to
metacercaria takes 6-7 weeks.

One miracidium produces 600 metacercaria.Young fluke

migrate in liver 6-8 weeks and pp is 10-12 weeks.The
minimal period of the entire lifecycle is 17-18 weeks(4
months & few extra weeks).One adult fluke lays 20,000-
50,000.Parasitic phase of gigantica is longer similarly PP
13-16 weeks.
In Ethiopia both snails identified ( L.trancatula for
hepatica & L.natalensis for gigantica) eg. in Shoa,
Mekelle, have the aperture opened to the right on
turret upright,4 1/2 whirls in front of the observer. Are
amphibious/fresh stagnant water/aqauitic habitat &
periodically on mud & has range of 15-22 centigrade
for development. One producing up to 100,000 over 3
months.Epidemiologically related to environment the
production of large number of metacercariae to have out
breaks of fascioliasis are availability of suitable snail
habitat( wet mud to free water,banks of ditches and edges of
small ponds—”Horeye or Kurea”).
second is temperature & lastly moisture for both. You should
know that it is possible metacercaria can float on stagnant water.
Clinical signs : This is based on the parasitic phase, burden &
animal species. The migration of immature in liver
parenchyma produces damage & hemorrhage & in adult
parasite haematophagic activity & damage of bile duct
mucosa by their cuticular spine. At host species level:-
1.Ovine fascioliasis : it has forms of----
1.1 Acute : occur in 2-6 weeks by ingestion of usually
over 2000. At necropsy liver is enlarged, hemorrhagic
and honey combed, sub scapular hemorrhage, blood
stained fluid in abdominal cavity, sudden
death,clinically include weakness with pale mucous
membrane,dyspnoeic,some time abdominal pain & acites.
Is complicated by Cl.perfringens called black disease.
1.2 Sub acute form takes to 6-10 weeks ingesting
about 500-1500 metacercariae ie is associated with
relatively slow ingestion of metacercariae where
some in parenchyma & some in bile duct matured
producing cholingitis,here liver enlargement is seen
with necrotic foci or hemorrhagic tract and usually
sub scapular hemorrhage seen but rupture rear.
These represent hemorrhagic anemia,
hypoalbuminanemia & mortality but not so rapid
as acute which include clinical signs 1-2 weeks
before death.Clinically contain rapid loss of
condition, marked pale mucous membrane,
enlarged palpable liver, possibly submandibular
oedema or facial edema & acites.
1.3 Chronic : occurs in 4-5 months of ingestion 200-500
metacercariae.Anemia & hypoalbuminemia due to
loss of 0.5 ml blood per fluke /day.There is additional
loss of plasma protein by leakage through hyperplastic
bilary mucosa.

In post mortem liver has an irregular outline, pale and

firm & most common in ventral lobe. Pathologically is
characterized as hepatic fibrosis & hyperplasic
cholangitis. The re are many types/forms of fibrosis
important for speciality.Clinically progressive loss of
body condition, emaciation, pallor mucosa,
submandibular oedema & ascites (caused by anemia &
hypoalbuminemia).
2. Bovine : although in calves most important is chronic. In
addition to pathology of sheep calcification of bile duct,
enlargement of gall bladder, in heavy infection anaemia &
hyoalbuminaemia ,clinically submandibular oedema. It should
be considered that diarrhoea is not common unless complicated
by Ostertagia or other GIT parasites. Reduction in milk yield
and quality is seen together with low burden when not clinically
apparent.
In adult cows due to reinfection the parasite seen to inter in to
foetus,some times migrate to lung & encapsulte also.
Additionally experiments have shown fascioliasis has increased
susceptibility to S.dublin
Diagnosis :Primarily on clinical signs, seasonal & weather
pattern & past history.
Ovine fascioliasis post mortem.
Bovine hematological & routine feces examination together
with estimation of plasma level enzymes (glutamate &
gamma) & detection of antibodies using ELISA & passive
haemaglutination test.
Treatment : -Chemotherapeutic on : strategically having
weather data & its epidemiology. One Rx towards end of
adverse climate( dry and/ or cool). This is larva being in egg
and/or snail activity is retarded.
and will have both action from out side to enter and /or
contamination of pasture as the egg & snail activity are
retarded due to harsh environment just before favorable
conditions created & has effect of treatment & prophylactic.
-One or two treatments depending on seasonal condition &
drug availability at 3- 4 months interval & when known
peak of contamination of pasture with metacercaria. This
occurs mostly when scarce in feed animals are also highly
concentrated in most and wet areas looking for feed
compared when grazing and rain is satisfactorily available.
-Additionally treatments can be necessary when development
of larval stage is continuous as it is favorable.
-Treatment of sick is also used in severely extensive
management and when appropriate weather data are not
available or on request. But will be too late to prevent losses.
The drug of choices are :-
Antihelminthic Recommend dosage Route Age of fluke in weeks &
mg/kg efficiency >90 %
Albendazole Sheep 4.75,cattle 10 oral >12 for both species
Bithionol 75 ,30 oral >12 for both species &
effective for paramphis.
Bromophenophos 16,12 oral >12 for both species
Brotianide 5.6,no oral >12 for sheep & is effective
for paramphistome
Carbon tetrachloride 80,40 oral >12 for both
80-160, the same im 10-12 sheep, >12 cattle
Clioxanide 20,no oral 12 sheep & is effective for
paramphistome
Clorsulon no, 7 oral - sheep,8 cattle
no , 2 sc - sheep, >12 cattle
Closantel 7.5-10,no oral 6-8 sheep
no, 3 sc >12 cattle
Hexachloroethane 250-300,300 oral 12, >12 & is effective for
paramphistome
Hexachloroparaxylene 150,130 oral 12,12
Hexachlorophene 15,20 oral 12,12 & is effective for
paramphistome
Antihelminthic Recommend dosage Route Age of fluke in weeks
mg/kg & efficiency >90 %

Niclofolan 4 ,3 oral 12,12 & is effective for

paramphistome

no, 08 sc >12 cattle

Nitroxynil 10,10 sc 8,10 commonly used

Oxyclozanide 15, 13-16 oral 12,>14 & is effective for

paramphistome,no residue
in milk
Rafoxanide 7.5,7.5 oral,sc 0.8 oral,sc 6,12 & is effective for
cattle paramphistome,commonly
used
Tribromsalan 20 ,20 oral 12,>12

Triclabendazole 10,12 oral 1, 1

8
Tip : amphibious snail means that live in wet and mud
(L.truncatula…F.hepatica) & fresh water L.ntalensis----
F.gigantica
-Control : chemoprophylactic treatment/antihelminth is
included than solely having other methods/means. But in most
cases treatment refer to sick animals. There is no much difference
b/n control & treatment of both species unless specified for
example in hepatica the control of snail include in muddy area.
-A.Reduction of snails---1. drainage ( expensive) is direct 2. use of
molluscicide annually with copper sulphate,Phaytolaca dodecandra
before breeding is also direct. 3. pumping of water partly 4. growing of
plant that can seep the water
-B.Reduction of both---1. fencing is indirect (P&IH) 2.rotational grazing
(P&IH) 3.cut & curry mainly hay ( mainly for Parasite).
→Class Assignment & Discussion:- in case of our country which method
of control is applicable & why in extensive & intensive management? How
about breed influence ?
Extensive : 1.strategic chemo- prophylactic application 2. movement
control to high risk areas, use of rotational grazing/partial grazing and/or
cut & carry mainly as hay in communal grazing land & if community
agreed 3. extension , education specific and general on habitat of parasite
& snail; control & rx methods 4. seasonality of the parasite 5. Considre
green forage feeding where possible
Intensive : 1. treatment of newly introduced animals, hay making &
feeding 2. selective purchase and/or having hay from none
endemic/suitable areas to the parasite & snail covered 3. rx to all animals
at start of farming 4. proper ration formulation/proteneous 5. deworming
1-2 per year round depending on the suspicion & vulnerability of the
farm. 6. avoid mix of species, age & consider stage of reproduction &
production 7. drainage & hygiene of the farm & barn 8. supply of clean
water/ avoid stagnant water/contaminated by wet mud & grasses/ clean
high/feed troughs
Breeds : although there is no deep research mainly seen on sheep as
example Red Masai, Indonesian long tailed & relatively Abergelle. Thus
selection of resistant progeny need to be encourage on livestock
1.2 Family Schistomatidae
General : primarily a parasite of blood vessels in alimentary tract &
bladder, affects man seriously & some animals can be affected &
reservoir too. Differ from other flukes having clearly separated M & F.
Genus Schistosoma :
H= all domestic mammals but most important in cattle & sheep
IH= water snails mainly Bulinus & Physopsis. Generally variety of
snails are involved
Site = Usually mesenteric vein & one species in nasal vein
Spps & occurrence = can be grouped based on their
occurrence/distribution as follows:-
Major --- Schistosoma bovis in ruminants, in Africa, Middle east,
Asia, southern Europe
----Schistosoma matthei in ruminants, occasionally in man,
found in Africa
--- Schistosoma japonicum in most domestic animals & man in
Far East
Minor --- among 6 spps which need to be mentioned
are Schistosoma mansoni in wild animals & man in
Africa,South America & the Middle East;
Schistosoma leipri in cattle in Africa.
In Ethiopia --- In Mekelle 7% prevalence in 2008
mainly in calves in dairy cattle through coprological
examination which are semi intensively managed &
possibly transmitted by the findings of bulinus
opened to the left & planorbid that has orb & ram
horn. The major clinical signs seen were diarrhea,
emaciation & loss of milk production. In other parts
example in Bahirdar 29-33.8% at different study
period using eggs and in post mortem 30-37% of
Morphology: grossly-- male is broad, flat & about 2 cm long
(4-22mm) carrying female (size=12-28mm) in its hollow
inwardly curved body & its site is sufficient for identification.
Microscopically-- egg is spindle shaped having lateral
(mansoni sp) or terminal spine (bovis sp) & thined shell, adult
has mouth with sucker, pharynx & extended to gut as cecal
tract.
Life cycle : female lays egg in mesenteric vein → in to venules
—pass to intestinal mucosa & lumen using its spines and
proteolytic enzyme secreted by un hatched miracidium ---
then through feces---- to outside & water miracidium hatch &
penetrate snail ---- develop to cercara (in 5 weeks)--- out to
environment & motile cercaria penetrate to FH either via skin
or ingestion of infected water--- loose forked tail and changed
to schistosomula /young fluke--- travel through circulation to
heart and lung lastly systemic circulation--- locate in liver or
Epidemiological factors :
1. Duration of infestation
2. Number of the parasite
3. Availability of permanent infected water bodies
(Horeie/Kurea, pond, lake & marshy water
---turbid/muddy water possibly with grasses & wet land)
4. Abundance of IH & ability to develop in the
environment
5. Cattle are major transmitter to shoats because are
reluctant to enter in water meaning transmission major
in shoats by infected water but for cattle including
skin penetration
6. Age & dairy cattle are more susceptible relatively
Clinical signs: diarrhea some time with blood & mucus,
anorexia, thrist, anemia, emaciation, hypoalbuminemia
mainly in sheep. In PM hemorrhage in entestine, egg
granuloma & portal fibriosis in liver.
Diagnosis: clinical pathological features of diarrhea,
anemia,wasting & history access to natural water source.
Persistent diarrhoea with blood may help to differentiate
from fascioliasis, egg in feces & PM with looking the adult
parasite. If in population serology could be important.
Rx : The first drugs were antimonial preparations, tartar
emetic, antimosan & stibophen. Now nitridazole,
trichlorfon.All over period of time. In human praziquintal & in
animals to be looked but showed recovery through our trail in
ILALA/MEKELLE dairy farms. Is Expensive because of weight.
Conrol : As fasciola
Chapter 4 Class cestoda : among order of cyclophyllidea (7 families)
the more important are two families which we are going to looked at &
will be described having the detail study of the relatively important
species .
Morphologically this order has generally adult cestodes with
scolex containing attachment organs which are 4 suckers on
side of scolex & may bear many hooks with in the rostellum
anteriorly. & followed by un segimented neck called as as
chain strobilia & each segment proglottid. Each proglottid is
hermapharodite when matured released with feces with
disintegrated segments but full of eggs. The genital system is
generally similar to trematodes.
The egg is hexacanth ( 6 hook embryo) or onchosphere. The
thick radially straited shell called embryophore.
Nutrition absorption from host in adult is through the tegument. The
nerve consists ganglia in scolex branched to proglottids. The excretory
system as trematodes that cells leading to efferent canal of strobila.
Its life cycle is indirect with one IH where by egg is
ingested. IH ingested by FH with few exceptions goes to
GIT where by releasing onchosphere by intestinal
secrtions, then with hooks pass to blood or lymph, loses
its hook in site and develops in to one of the following
metacestodes (#6):-
Cysticercus : fluid filled cyst with one invaginated scolex
some times called protoscolex.
Coenurus : as cystcercus but contain many scolices.
Hydatid : large fluid cyst with many invaginated scolices
which lie free or bunched surrounded by germinal
epithelium called brood capsules where contents are
called as hydatid sands.
Cysticercoid : single evaginated scolex typically found in
Strobilocercus : evaginated single scolex is connected to
the cyst by a chain of asexual proglottids which will later
will be digested by FH except scolex.
Tetrathyridium : worm like larva with invaginated scolex
found only in Mesocestoididae family.
1. Tanidae family : their general character contain
- H= adult in domestic carnivora & man
- Scolex has armed rostellum & has concentric
double rows of hooks except Taniae saginata has
unarmed scolex
- Garvid segments are longer than are wider
The major genus are Taniae having spp (8-9) of saginata, solium,
multiceps, hydatigenea, ovis, pisiformis, seriatis, taneiaformis
& genus Echinococcus having species of multiocularies &
Genus Taenia (#9 spp) : the importance of adult & larval
stage of this genus is the adult form affects major dog
except T.saginata & T.solium in man, in cat
T.taniaeformis & all as FH . Their larval form as IHs in
cattle C.bovis (T.saginata) ; in sheep C.ovis (T.ovis),
C.teneucollis (T.hydatigenea) ; Coenurus cerabralis
(T.multiceps) in cattle & sheep ; C.tarandi (T.krabbei) in
Raein deer & C.pisiformis (T.pisiformis ) in rabbit.
The site of cyst form is in muscle for T.saginata,T.solium,
T.ovis & T.krabbei ; in peritonuem T.hydatigenea &
pisiformis (IH rabbit) &T.multiceps in central nervous
system lastly T.serialis ( IH rabbit & has Coenurus
ceriallis) in connective tissue. So the public health
importance is associated those adults affects man & cysts
can be taken with meat as food to human.
It is not exaggerated also if included those adults
affects dog & cat can be fed their cyst to both pet
animals that can be managed by man while
processing meat by as public health activity.
Examples of major important species of Taniae :
Taniae saginata :
Species & morphology : this spp adult form has 5-15 meters
length but possibly in 14 years of age can reach to 34
meter.The number of proglotids can reach from 1000 to
2000,has 4 suckers, uterus can contain 97,000-124,000 of
eggs & the number of eggs layed reach to 594 million per
year. The parasite do not have hooks & rostellum & the larva
is called Cysticercus bovis.
Epidemiology : has ww distribution & the epidemiological
pattern is divided in to i) Developing countries which are
Asia, Africa & Latin America have extensive cattle farming,
rural & minor urban people have sanitation out side & the
feeding habit is uncooked or not well fed. According to this
base the human infection is over 20% ,calves are also affected at
early age as stock men contaminates pasture with eggs.
Generally the meat inspection rate indicate 30-60%
prevalence. However this is compensated by persistent
acquired immunity in the host. ii) in developed countries like
Europe, North America, Australia & New Zealand the
sanitation standards are high, meat is inspected properly &
cooked/packed well which indicate prevalence rate is less
than1%.
Outbreaks are seen due to human sewerage to pasture &
Taenia saginata egg can live for >200 days on sewerage.
Labor migrants from high infected areas can influence its presence to
free areas. Additionally sustainably low level of persistent
prevalence is seen in developing countries due to cattle drink water
from sewage sources & birds egg dispersal from water sewerage to the
sea rivers & pasture .So as high prevalence has less acquired immunity
& all ages are susceptible. Generally in adult cattle the life of cyst is
Life cycle : Man releases egg or segment ( having about
250,000 eggs/proglotid)  to pasture & contaminated
waterbovine ingest embryophore freed from inclose by
pancreatic secretion , bile & passes through blood to straited
muscle where onchosphere develops. After 2 weeks of entry
pale, semi transparent spot of 1 mm daimeter which is not
infective to man & develops to larger size 1 cm infective to
man. This is covered with fibrous capsule having invaginated
scolex with gray white can color. Its life span is weeks to
years when dies changed to calcification also called caseous
crumby mass. The FH man ingests raw meat infected 
developed in SI to adult to release egg to outside with 2-3
months & continues the cycle seen above.However the PP in
most species is 7-8 weeks. The cysts are found in routine meat
inspection in heart,toungue & intercoastal muscle. But in
Mekelle there are reports seen on liver which is not commonly known.
prenatal infection may occur also
Clinical signs : In man 35.6% abdominal pain, nousea
34.4%,weakness 24.8%, loss of weight & appetite 21% &
17% respectively, head ache 15%, constipation 9.4%,
dizziness 8.2%, diarrhea 5.9%, puriritis of anus 4.5% &
excitation 3.4%.
Diagnosis : cell count /haematogram/-- oesinophilia raises to
10-25% , fecal examination & history if raw meat feeding.
Rx : Niclosamde, mebendazole are recent but dechlorophene,
cistodin (toxic) & herbal medicine such as Melferen(Kosso),
ananas juice & seeds of papaya.
Control :- 1.meat freezing in -10 degree centigrade at least
for 10 days.2. strict meat inspection supported with proper
regulations that incorporate compensation, conditional & none
conditional feeding. 3.Cooking 5-10 minutes at + 57 degree
4. education & hygiene 5. if human wastes are used as
fertilizer animals should not graze or get feed from the
pasture before 2 years.
2.T.multiceps : ( synonym Multiceps multiceps)
Morphology : the cyst is named as Coenurus cerabralis
having large fluid cyst invaginated many scolices & size of
5cm or greater. The adult cestode found in dog & wild canids
has a length of up to 100 cm. Its FH site is SI & IH in central
nervous system.
Epidemiology : Its distribution is ww & the IHs are
shoats,cattle, pig & horse.
Life cycle :from intestine hosts release gravid segments or
eggs through feces to pasture or appear in contaminated
waterthe onchosphere ingested & pass through blood to nervous
system of IHs then hosts ingest cysted nervous organ to continue the
Diagnosis : CT ( computerized temography) scan or palpation
( soft skull) & post mortem looking for many invaginated
scolices of cyst in IHs. In FH site and morphology of adult
cestode together with enteritis.
Rx & control : no treatment for cyst but surgically can be
tried.For adult aerocholinehidrobromide 1-2mg/kg.
paraziquintal,dichlorophene 2 mg/kg, antaline 10mg/kg,
niclosamide 100mg/kg.
Control : cooked or deep freezed feeding to hosts & keep
hygiene in hosts.
Genus Echinococcus :it has major strains in domestic animals
called Echinococcus granulosus & equinus.
Their general morphohology are grossly adult cestode length
is 6mm & difficult to see in fresh intestine of host, contain
scolex with 3-4 segments & last segment covers about 50% of the
Microscopically the scolex has doubled raw hooks (no.28-
50),each segment has single genital pore & ovary has
kidney shape. Egg as tanidae is radially striated & has 6
hooked onchosphere.
Echinococcus granlosus granulosus & equinus:
Epidemiology : the first spp is ww & the second manily in
Europe. Site of the adult in both is SI. Their cyst mainly in
liver & lung. H= for the first species dog & wild canids
except red fox but to the second dog & red fox. IHs=
ruminants( domestic+ wild),man,pig & horses & donkeys
are resistant for Echnococcus granulosus for the second
sp the HIs are horse & donkeys.
1.Epidemiology of Echnococcus granulosus :- few countries are
free Iceland & Eire. The major epidemilogical features are one
pastoral cycle where by dog feed on ruminant ofal mainly sheep
Addtionally in Middle east camel is reservoir, in north Europe
& northern USSR as well reindeer. However in dog is
primarily source of hydatidosis to man. Man ingests from
coats of dogs or vegetable or other food staff
contaminated. The second is sylvatic cycle which is less
source of infection to man but to canids hunting ruminants.
2.Epidemilogy of Echinococcus granulosus equinus : is
common in Europe because of imported horses & the IHs are
specific to equines. Therefore in Europe offal of horses fed
to dogs in slaughter house and in Britain hunting horses fed
to foxes after death.
Lifecycle :PP is 40-50 days. To start hosts release segments or
onchosphere through feces to environment & are viable for 2 years.
IHs ingest orally onchosphere through contaminated feed & water
penetrate gut & then to blood to reach to liver,if via lymph to
lung.Sometimes escape to systemic to develop in other organs.
The development in IH takes 6-12 months where by brood
capsules budded off forming many of them hydatid
sand.Daughter cysts are formed sometimes internally or
externally.If external moves to other part of the body to form
new hydatid cyst.The location of cyst in sheep ranges from
70% in lung, 25% in liver & 5% others & in cattle &
horse >90% liver. Finally the cysted organs are ingested by
the final hosts to continue the actual reproduction stage. The
content of cyst is formed by little protein & fat, trace
succinic acid, trace sugar & 3% salt.
Clinical signs : adult in FH is not pathogenic & may be
present without clinical signs. The cyst is tolerated in
domestic animals but is observed in meat inspection/PM.
However the mechanical effect/pressure in viceral organs can rarely
lead to signs. In human is clearly to the opposite that is depending its
presence in lung can cause respiratory sign, on liver abdominal
distention . If cyst rupture has risk of developing anaphylaxisis
shock & if man survives the scolices move to other organs.
Diagnosis : in IHs of domestic animals is rarely suspected but
in man CFT or immunoelectrophoresis or scanning
technique can help. On FH the adult segments are small &
shade rarely to environment but if found has size of 2-3mm
ovoid shape & single genital pore. Therefore if you suspect
the FH can be treated with purgative & antihelimenthic to
examine for its existance doing PM.
Rx & control :- to adult hosts treating with paraziquintal &
in man cyst can be removed surgically or with albendazole.
Control : dogs have to be dewormed regularly, supply of
inspected organ, avoid dogs from slaughter houses or
exposure to disposals & removal of stray dogs for rabies
will help to reduce Echinococcusis.
There is also another species under the above genus called as
multiocularis where by its FHs are the same to granulosus,
hase IHs which are rodents, insectivores, large mammals
including man. Its adult site in FH is the same but IHs is
mainly in liver. As a result of Sylvatic cycle is difficult to
control this species.
2. Family Anoplocephalidae :
General characterstic : is essentially herbivore adult
cestode.Scolex is without rostellum & hook. Its cyst form is
cysticercoid in IH.
H= horses & donkeys in SI & LI.
IH= mites found in forage & soil
Species= Anoplocephala perfoliata & magna
Epidemiology= located ww & related with forage mites which are
ingested with grass having the cyst of the cestode/cysticercoid &
Morphology : in size are small except the Paranocephala
mamillana with a size up to 20 cm in length,gravid segments
are wider rather than long. Scolex consists lappet behind
each of the 4 suckers but Anoplocephala magna differs by
being as long as 80 cm & no lappets.
Life cycle : mature segments out through feces disintegrate &
release eggs. This ingested by mites to develop in to
cycticercoid in 2-4 months & ingested mite by FH to
develop to adult in 1 or 2 months in intestine.
Clinical signs : in most not seen but when significant
pathological change there might be unthriftiness, enteritis &
colic.
Diagnosis : typical egg in feces.
Rx & control : efficient drugs such as niclosamide,
pyrantel, mebendazole at increased dosage.
Control is difficult as mites are wide spread & any
way treating equine before to new pasture may help.
NB : Generally it should be known that diplidium spps
in dog cat having fleas & lice as IHs ,davainea spps in
fowl having IHs snail & slugs & mesocestoides in
dogs ,cats & wild carnivores up to 40 cm length
having two IHs which are mites as cysticercoid & in
vertebrates as tetrthyridium are found in different
families. In the order of pseudophilidea
Diphyllobothrium latum that affects fish eating
mammals having 2 IHs ( copepod crustacea & fresh
water fish) adult without sucker is also additionally
known as fish caused cestode.
Adult in SI
SPP= M.expansa hosts mainly small ruminants; M.benedeni chiefly hosts cattle
IH= cysticercoid in forage mites
Davinea another genera is shorter in size+ Railleitina which
affect birds as below; adult in SI & in IH snail Cyciticercoid
Hosts = man + fish eating mammals; IHS crustricean and fish
(2 IHs)
Chapter 5 class nematoda :
1.General characteristics:-
Class Nematoda has important subclass phasmida &
aphasmida. Their major features are cyliderical in
shape and both ends some what pointed ( grossly )
and have alimentary canal and sex are separated
(microscopically).
They are also grouped microscopically on bursate
( male morphology) and none bursate.
•Are important morphological differences that can
help for grouping (majorly families and/or genera) and
developmental stages related to lifecycle (direct and/or
indirect) in terms of types/stages of infestation of the
larva development and method of transmission to
host. Therefore consider these when discussed in
detail on nemathyhelminthes as only exceptional and
not mentioned will be explained later.
1. Anatomy & physiology:
• Systems : A. Nervious system as nerve ring around
the first opening of oesophagus that follows as nerve
cord ventrally along the length of round worms
which ends in rectum, cloaca & anus on M &
rectum, vulva & anus on F.
B. Outer cover: most have cylindrical form but
tepering/narrowing in both ends & body is covered by cuticlar
layer/cuticle (colorless & translucent) as protection and body
regulation organ (is seen by Necked eye). Cuticle is formed by
underlying hypoderms. The hypodermis created also the
lateral cords (dorsal excretory canal & ventral nerve cords) .
C. Inner cover: is hypodermis followed by muscle cells in the
whole cylinder longitudinally arranged (microscopically
through histological staining & sectioning) & contain body
cavity ( Microscopicaly but >X40-50 magnification that have
reproductive & digestive organs).
D. Movement/locomotion ( through necked eye if alive) : is
working by the undulating waves of muscle contraction and
relaxation alternatively dorsally and ventrally
E. Internal organs : most are filamentnous hanged in the fluid
of body cavity ---- E.1 Digestive system
Is tube form: so in fully developed adult-----
•Mouth is simple opening depends mostly on the type of genus
that can have/surrounded by 2 or 3lips. But if big & relatively
developed is called buccal capsule (divided in to small & large) &
are microscopic (stereomicroscope X40-50 /none fixed, except
detail shape of mouth & small buccal capsule for identification
decision of genus and/or mounted as they are on slide relatively
better observation/ & stained on sections of fixed slides/
binocular staged by X100 using oil immersion/ which is more
applicable to all types and stages of development) to identify their
internal morphology. Remember that any larval stage can be seen
also using stereo microscope (of course using none fixed &
petridishes wetted or dried but not detail organs except length,
head/mouth part, tail shape ). If larva is stained using
iodine ,mounted on slide with cover slip as they are helps to count
the intestinal cells specially for L3 & adding other parameters
like tail shape more help for differentiate among generas.
Types of feeding: those with large buccal capsule
with teeth or without---- draw a plug of mucosa in to
mouth & enzymes secreted from adjacent glands for
breaking (example Strongloidis/Strongloidea)
Following & depending on the type of worm release
anticoagulant which breaks small blood vessels
results in bleeding even if the parasite moves into
other new site of mucosa.
All with small capsule ( exa. Trischostrongloidea)
& with simple mouth/opening (Ascaridoidea)
generally feed on mucosa fluid & cell debris. Like
Oxyuroidea feeds on the contents of lower part of
intestine & those living on blood vessels or tissue
•Oesophgus: works to pump food to intestine & is
muscular. Are
1. Rhabditiform: anterior longer swelling &
posterior short swelling connected to the
intestine with longer neck connection in between
swellings (found mainly on pre-parasitic larvae of
many nematodes and adult free living nematodes)
2. Filariform: simple tubular cylinder and slightly
thicker at posterior ( in bursate nematodes)
3. Bulb form: bulb is more clear posterior (in
Ascaridoidea)
4. Double bulb: clear bulbs connected with short
neck in b/n (Oxyuroidea)
5.Muscular-glandular: anterior muscular &
posterior glandular (Filaroidea & Spiruroidea)
6.Trichuroid: capillary form having a single column
cells of 1/3 of its length interiorly
• Intestine: lumen/tube with single layer
cells/syncytium having microvilli that increase
absorption where by in ending for F is anus & M
cloaca (fuction as anus) & connected to
vasdeference where spicules extruded
E.2 Excretory: is primitive laterally & goes
anteriorly to form excretory pore in oesophugus
region.
E.2 Reproductive: F= has ovary, oviduct (microscopic
—sectioning & mounting) & uterus seen with eggs
filled ( streomicroscopic on adult, sometimes connected
sequentially, may be paired & connected. The uterus
joined & opens as vulva (microscopic) to form short
vagina (microscopic). Here at the junction of uterus &
vulva in some species form muscular organ called
ovijector (streomicroscopic) that support egg laying &
vulvar flap may exist too (stereomicroscopic)
M= has single testis , continuous that has vas deference
(ejaculator duct) ends in cloaca (all microscopic). So in F
uterus egg, vulva & if present vulvar flap-- in M where as
all absent but seen spicule , if can have bursa,only have
cloaca & shorter whole length compared to F.
Specules usually are paired which are microscopic &
streoscopic (inserted in F on copulation), consists towards end/tail
structure called gubernaculum (guide for specule). During
mating contact on opposition, M releases sperm in to F uterus
through vulva for fertilization.
F. Additional ballooner formations (stereoscopic)—
Are called cuticular/outer formations of the adult nematode
which all and/or some exist or totally absent depending on
generas & spp : 1. Leaf crown- at the tip of mouth opening
having lined or rounded finger/papillae/spin like structure,
usually symetrical supported by →2. Cephalic
vesicle/inflation – the 1st baloon & smaller followed by 3.
following posteriorly called cervical vesicle & bigger than
cephalic followed by 4. Cervical ala is elongated, can pass the
oesophagus & at the middle can have lateral triangular/finger like
projection attached to the outer memebrane but ending in the ala
Mouth/
Buccal

Anterior
esophagus
part of
Nematode

Intestine
paired
Remember that the alae can exist also around tail called as
caudal alae that help for differentiations of generas/spp 5.
Bursa(streoscopic) – helps to hold the F during copulation. Is
found only on 3 super families ( Trichostrongloidea,
Streongloidea & Metastrongloidea) which use as additional M
differenciation. This is developed from the much extended
caudal alae and have papillae called as rays at different
positioning which are help full for spp differenciation. The rays
are bounded by dorsal lobe. As paired form (left & right
sides) & from anterior to posterior the rays are called ventral,
lateral, externodorsal ( caudal boundry) & dorsal ray usually
caudal middle. All rays can be paired or single in left or right
depending on spp. The bursa also holds also spicule &
gubernaculum.
Reminder:- refer schematic drawings of all the above
anatomical structures & in practical activity for better
2. Simple classifications of Nemathehelminthes
Super family Anatomy Lifecycle type Infective stage

Trichostrongloidea Small buccal Direct L3

Strongloidea Developed buccal, Direct L3

with leaf crown, teeth
usually present

Metastrongloidea Small buccal Indirect L3 in IH ( earth worm,

snail)
Rhabtidoidea Small buccal, very Direct L3
small size, are free &
parasitic generations

Ascaridoidea Large size, white, Direct L2 in egg

mouth/small opening
Oxyuroidea F= long & pointed tail Direct L3 in egg

Spiruroidea M= spiral tail Indirect L3 in IH (insect)

Filarioldea Thin long size, Indirect L3 in IH (insect)

3. Development stages
-EGG: √ generally in nematodes vary in size &
shape
√ shell has variable thickness & is usually with 3
layers. Inner thinner & impermeable ; middle
tough & chitinous, when thick gives yellow
coloration to the egg & in many known species
forms operculum/plug/lid at one end or both of the
egg by interruption the layer. The outer has protein
, is sticky & thick for Ascardiodae ( characterstic).
In some species the outer layer is thin which forms
as residual sheath of larval tail where its shape
helps genus & species identification of nematodes.
 Thickness of egg variation leads to survival potential
variation on environment ( protects larva). Remember
that larvae eggs laid by nematodes have very thick
shell.
-HATCHING: is controlled by temperature,
moisture & larva it self. The inner layer is broken
by the larva secreted enzyme & movement. This
gives the opportunity to the larva to take water
from environment, enlarged that help to break the
next layers to escape. But for larvated egg type of
some nematodes the hatching takes place after
ingestion by the host & is stimuli to hatch in the
gut.
-LARVAL DEVELOPMENT & SURVAIVAL:
among all families Trichostrogloids, Strongloids &
Rhabtidoids are having complete free living
preparasitic phase. Their L1 & L2 feed on bacteria
but the L3/infective stage sealed/no feeding but use
reserve of cuticle from L2 as food. The L2 cuticle
serves also as sheath to L3 ( important for survival
& is protecting desiccation like larvated egg).
Optimum Temp for development on ground is 18-26
centigrade. The higher the tremp. larva
hyperactive, fast development but low survival
rate of population due to lack of reserved food. If
low is opposite. Below 10 centigrade egg to larva
no at all. if again lower than 5 centigrade where by
movement & development minimal but in many
nematodes higher survivors.
The humidity as optimum 100% if less 80% but
even in dry season the microclimate/ wet in pat of
dung will help for survival too.
-INFECTIVE STAGE: the L3 sheds the L2 sheath
in the gut & releases Leucine aminopeptide enzyme
to shealth all cover
-ARRESTED LARVAL DEVELOPMENT/
Inhibited larva developmen/Hypobiosis:
This is temporary cessation of development at
parasitic stage. Is facultative & happens in only
proportion of nematode strains. This is proved by the
presence on many & the stage of larvae without
producing disease. The reasons for such behavior is
on debate but is expected due to environmental
stimuli found at free parasitic stage. The
epidemiological importance is 1- ensure survival at
time adverse environment outside 2- the following
maturation of arrested development increases
environmental contamination.
-PREPARTRUINT RISE (PPR) IN EGG COUNT/
Post parturient rise/Spring rise: is laying high egg at
time of female host parturition on sheep. It is due to
temporarily relaxation of immunity due to
pregnancy hormones circulating in the body of host.
Its source is :
√ Maturation of arrested larvae due to low immunity.
√ Increasing establishment of infestation acquired
from the pasture & reduced turn over of adult
infestation.
√ Increasing fecundity of existing adult worms
population. PPR occurs at time of many susceptible
host exist. It causes also loss of production such as
milk.
4.Taxonomy details
Order S.order Super family Family Genus

Rhabitida Strongylata Trichostrongloid Trichostrongylida Ostertagia,

ea e Haemonchus,Tric
(Bursate) hostrongylus,
Cooperia,
Nematodirus,
Dictyocaulus
(most imp.)

In some old Strongyloidae/ Stronglidae Strongyles,Tricho

books some of Strongloididae (Bursate) nema, Chabertia,
the mention Oesophagostom
genus are um,
grouped in Stephanurus,
Rhabiditata & Syngamus,
not impor. Ancylostoma,
Bunostomum,
Trichonema
Order S.order Superfamily Family Genus

Metastrongloidea Metastrongylidae Metastrongyles,

(Bursate) Mullerius,
Angylostrongylus,
Filaroides.

Rhabitoidea Rhabitidae Strongloides,Rhabi

(None bursate) dits.

Ascaridida Ascaridata Ascaridoidea Ascaridae Ascaris, Toxocara,

( in some old Toxasris,
books heterakis is Paraascaris,
grouped in family Ascaridia,
heterakidae) Heterakis
(None bursate)
Oxyuridae Oxyuris
Oxyruroidea (N.Bursate)
Spirocerca,
Spirurida Spirurata Spiruroidea Oxyruroidae Habronema,
(None bursate) Thelezia
Spiruridae
( in some old
books one genus
grouped in
Thelazilidae )
( None bursate)
Order S.order Superfamily Family Genus

Metastrongloidea Metastrongylidae Metastrongyles,

(Bursate) Mullerius,
Angylostrongylu
s, Filaroides.

Rhabitoidea Rhabitidae Strongloides,Rha

(None bursate) bidits.

Ascaridida Ascaridata Ascaridoidea Ascaridae Ascaris,

( in some old books Toxocara,
heterakis is grouped Toxasris,
in family Paraascaris,
heterakidae) Ascaridia,
(None bursate) Heterakis
Oxyuridae
Oxyruroidea (N.Bursate) Oxyuris

Spirurida Spirurata Spiruroidea Oxyruroidae Spirocerca,

(None bursate) Habronema,
Spiruridae Thelezia
( in some old books
one genus grouped
in Thelazilidae )
( None bursate)
Points to be consider while studying helminthes in vet.
Parasitology course I:
1. Differentiate which genus and/or spp have similar or different hosts ( group them
yourself) and also similar egg shape & different
2. Differentiate which genus and or spp have similar or different predilection site
( group on organ base)
3. Differentiate which genus and or superfamily have direct or indirect lifecycle
including the different types of IHs. ( group them accordingly)
4. Differentiate which genus have specific epidemiology to maintain infection and
wait in the environment ; migratory & none in the host; related specific clinical
signs
5. Differentiate which genus and or superfamily need different laboratory diagnostic
method by taking sample from host
6. Differentiate which helminthes need specific drug & why for Rx; integrated control
method on host, IH & environment in population parasitic control
7. Depending on their size/length try to group those large & small ( do not take 1cm
or 1-2mm as difference ) and look the literature which says the biggest
8. Differentiate which superfamily,genus and /or spp have large buccal capsule, small,
simple mouth, specific structure anteriorly & in mouth; tail shape,male & female
features
9. Differentiate which superfamily have embryo in egg, only egg, infective stage of
5.Details starting family, genus and/or & following
specific characteristics :
√ These include morphology ( gross & microscopic)
of the adult parasite, egg ; host range & IH where
applicable; major clinical sign and/or diagnosis
where necessary; & where necessary epidemiological
specific factors. Regarding lifecycle ( on ground, in
IH where necessary & in hosts) unless has some
pathologic significance refer/ consider all the above
mentioned on the generalities of nematodes;
prevention/ control with treatment as well explained
on the introduction of parasitology.
5. 1 Trichostrongloidae ( S. F.; Direct)= 8 genus ,
L3 infective stage & the spp are :
Of:
1.Major:-O.ostertagia – cattle
O.circumcincata & trifurcata – shoats
Minor: lyrata & kalchida in cattle & leptospicularis in all (6)
2. H. contortus, placei (are now similar & hosts are cattle & shoats) &
similis for all (2)
3. Mecistocirrus digitatus affect buffalo & cattle in central Asia (1)
4. Trichostrongylus axie in cattle & stomach of horse & pigs;
vitrinus & capricola in shoats; retortaeformis in rabbit; tenuis in SI
& ceca of birds + 4 other spp affect all animals (9)
5. Cooperia onchophora, punctata, pectinata affect cattle;
surnabada in cattle & sheep & finally curtcei in shoats (5)
6. Hyostrongylus rubidus causes chronic gastritis in pigs in WW (1)
7. Nematodirus battus in sheep & calves; filicolis in shoats; spathiger in shoat &
cattle; helventianus in cattle & other 2 are recorded out of Africa (6), mostly
temprate
8.Dictycaulus viviparus in cattle; filaria in shoat; arnifield in equine (3) =∑33
-Are small hair like except Dictyoculus & gut
parasites of birds.

- Usually the lifecycle is none migratory

A. Genus Ostertagia: there 3 major species ( 2
minor); affect ruminants in abomasums; reddish
brown; length up to 1cm (Grossly/GS); spicules for
male are distally with 3 branches ; egg ovoid,
colorless, thin shell & when fresh on ground have
undifferentiated morula ( Microscopic/MS). Because
of suitable bionomics & relatively susceptible
breeds in temperate countries there are 2 types of
forms based called TYPE I & II & diagnosis is based
on EPG, on intensity diarrhea; grazing season, PM
adult count/40,000 & plasma pepsin level increased
from 1IU to 3IU .
B. Haemonchus:
 affect ruminants in abomasum; contortus sp for
sheep/goat, placei for cattle ( now both are similar
but differ in strain) & similis for both;
 more important in tropics; specules barbed &
asymmetric dorsal lobe ;
 the females white ovaries twisted/spiral along
the length of blood filled intestine called as
barbers pole;
 usually has vulvar flap & length of 2-3 cm;
 has buccal lancet for pricing mucosa ;
 eggs shape as Ostertagia;

 Is pathogen mainly for sheep ;
 has clinically hyper acute form expressed by sudden
death when infested up to 30, 000 worms (shoats),
 acute haemonchosis (on shoats & cattle below 2
years) having anemia, variety degree oedema
( submandibular & ascites) ,
 chronic only progressive lose of b.wt,
 no anemia & oedema; each worm sucks 0.05ml of
blood/day(30,000*0.05ml/day liquid lose) & PPP 2-
3 for shoats & 4 weeks for cattle
Haemonchcus epidemiology:
• EPG of 2,000-20,000 shows massive infective
larvae on pasture ;
• sheep is susceptible in endemic area because less
acquired immunity that result in high pasture
contamination;
• including in Africa hypobiosis is common in dry
season & lowlands but development on
temperate is arrested depending on annul cycle ;
• the clinical forms on tropics depend on climate &
degree of shade so variable & L3 is resistant for
desiccation on pasture & feces for 1-3 months
are major factors.
Haemonchus control :
 In tropics when rainfall & temp. permanent ( rain
is there/ without flooding/washing & temp. is not
higher than 26 centigrade & not cooler than 5
centigrade ) rx at 2-4 weeks interval & once at
start of dry & before start of rainy season.
 Experimentally there is also self curing
phenomena by larva antigen at heavy rain due to
immunity observed fall of EPG due to expulsion of
adult worms.
C. Trichostrongylus:
• like haemonchus is important in tropics ;
• hosts are ruminants, horses, pigs, fowl &
rabbit ; axie sp in abomasum of ruminants ,
horses & pigs ;
• colubriformis sp in SI of ruminants ;
• vitrinus & capricola spp on shoats of SI;
• retoritea ion in rabbit SI & tenuis sp on SI &
ceca of game birds;
• length less than 7mm ( microscopic);
• no clear buccal;
• in oesophageal area has excretory notch ;
• specules are thicker un branched but unequal
length in axei sp ;
• No vular flap & tail is blunt & tepered having
longitudinally arranged pole to pole eggs & egg
shape as Ostertagia.
D. Cooperia :
 Has 5 spp ( 4 mainly affect cattle & one only
shoats) ;
 site in SI;
 has similar length as Ostertagia ;
 very large bursa ;
 has small cephalic vesicle & cephalic cuticular
straiation ;
 female has elongated terminal tail;
 most spicules are above bursa & parallel & egg
as Ostertagia.
E. Nematodirus:
 Has 5 spp ( 4 in shoats );
 H= only ruminants;
 adult site = SI; ww distribution;
 cephalic vesicle small ;
 very long specules passing the bursa;
 length up to 3 cm;
 large ovoid egg;and differenciating morula
 the N.battus L3 mainly affect sheep waits up 23
years on pasture.
 Has general clinical sign as the above
 Dominant in highland areas
F. Dictyocaulus:
 Has D.viviparus hosts are cattle & deer , D.filaria
for shoats , D.arnifield for equine ;
 Is the only migratory species through portal vein
circulatory system
 Site trachea & bronchi ;how find in faces when the animal
coughing enter oesophagos to the digestive system
 ww distribution & mainly cooler areas ;
 filaria has cuticular nobe anteriorly;
 larval stage (L1) of arnefield has small terminal lancet for
differentiation ;
 with short tail & thick width adult ;
 length 8 cm & egg is as Ostertagia.
 Infective stage is L3 but find with out culture
 Coughing is clinical sigh
Adult
Nematudurus
spp

3rd stage
larva of
Nematudurus
spp
5.2 Strongloidea (direct L/Cy & L3 infective stage):
∑26 of which 3 oesophgostomum spp ,giageria
agriostomum are less important
 Generally most are with large buccal capsule, with
cutting teeth/plates & in some prominent leaf
crown,
 Except Syngamus & Mammomonogamus generas
in lung others are in SI & are grouped as
strongyles found in LI like Strongylus, Chabertia ,
Oesphgostomum, Trichonema (small strongyle,
<1.5cm,
 Large buccal capsule & external, internal leaf
crowns in cecum & colon)) & hook worms in SI
like Ancylostoma, Bunostomum & Unicinaria.
A. Strongylus :
 are large strongyles ; H= equine : site = cecum &
colon ;are 3 species
 the spp are vulgaris of 1.5- 2.5 cm two ear
shaped rounded teeth , edentatus of 2.5-4.5 cm
without teeth & equinus 2.5-5 cm with 3 conical
teeth where one dorsally located , is larger than
the others & bifid, all eggs similar with
ostertagia,
 in general in cooler areas PPP(prepatent period)
is 3 weeks & hot shorter.egg is like oestriotagia
Life cycle :-
1) vulgaris
L3 after entering mucosa moult to L4→ through
small arteries goes to final site to cranial mesentric
arteries to moult in several months to L5 being
returned to SI mucosa, forms nodule, rupture &
release the young worm in to lumen (PPP 6-7 months)
is migratory spp.
2) Edentatus : L3 after mucosa travel via portal vein to
liver parenchyma ;then
moults to L4 & migrates & located in hepatorenal
ligament.
Again migrates to predilection site to flanks & hepatic
ligament to occur L5 continued forming nodule in the
wall of LI to be released as vulgaris (PPP 10-12
months) .is migratory.
 3) Equinus :
least is known its larval migration (PPP 8-9
months).its life cycle unknown.
In general the pathology (clinical sigh) is seen in
their specific sites which include
anuerusim(blocking of blood vessel by parasite) in
vessels that cause colic ቁርፀት ; inappetence &
sometimes colic for vulgaris which is major among
the two ; endentatus having nodular formation but
little known on equinus.
Single No
All 3
Teeth teeth
tooth
dorsa
l Two Two
tooth tooth
B.Triodontopharus
• are none migratory large strongyle affecting equine
& placed in colon & caecum.
• Produce disease when there is mixed infection with
other strongyles & WW distribution.
• Their size is 1-2.5cm & there are 3 spp affecting all
equine & lifecycle like Trichonema
C.Trichonema
 have over 40 spp, WW found & are called as
cyathostomes or small strongyles,
 affect equine, site on colon & cecum having length
of < 1.5 cm,
 large buccal capsule with external & internal leaf
crown.
 Lifecycle infective L3 enter with grass into LI tissue
& insheathed which moult to L4 & later in lumen
to L5 & young adult
D.Chabertia ovina only :
• Mainly affects shoats; very large buccal capsule
bell shaped; 1.5-2 cm;
• double row papillae around rim;
• no t.eeth & egg as ostertagia.
• Lifecycle is similar to trichostronglidae,Only
afects shoats not cattle
E. Oesophagostomum :
 colombianum & venulosum hosts are shoats ;
 radiatum cattle & bufallo; for pigs dentatum &
quadrispinulatum ( in general there are 8 spp) ;
 site colon & caecum ;
 small buccal capsule sarrounded by leaf crown ;
 tepered head grossly ;
 has cephalic & servical vesicle; 1-2 cm & egg as
ostertagia.
F. Syngamus trachea
 only : H= domestic & game fowl ;
 site trachea ; 0.5-2 cm ;
 shallow buccal with 10 teeth at base;
 Male and Famale copula as “Y” & egg elipsoidal
with operculum at both ends.
 Rx(tretment) thiabendazole & fenbendazole ( in
feed for 3- 14 days); also use niroxynil &
levamizole in water.
G. Stephanurus dentatus only : H= pig ;
• site = kidney & perirenal tissue ;
• large stout form ; up to 4.5 cm ;
• transparent cuticle ( internal organs seen);
diagnosis check egg in urine ( but difficult to
find) & cerehotic liver in pork inspectio ;
• Rx benzimidazole, levamisole & ivermectin.
 H. Dog & cat hook worms :
are hook posture anteriorly & blood sucking.
A. Ancylostoma. Is important parasite
• 1: caninum (3 pairs theeth) in dogs & fox ;
• 2:tubaeforme (3 pairs teeth) in cat ;
• 3: braziliens ( 2 pairs teeth) dog & cat ;
• 4:duodnale man ; site = SI ; 1-2 cm & smaller
than ascaris parasite that found similarly ;
hooked head ; large buccal with marginal teeth ;
egg as ostertagia; infestation by skin& oral.
Lifecycle :5 life cycle
 1. if skin larva migrans through blood to lung & L3 moult L4
, following passes to bronchi & trachea ,then coughed up and
swollew & to SI to have L5.
 2. Ingestion either penetrate buccal mucosa & then
pulmonary migration to travel similarly to SIor
 3. if directly ingested all development takes place in SI;
 4.the female has high egg fecundity ; but caninum proportion
of the L3 have a feature in susceptible bitches(female dog)
when reach in lung migrate to skeletal muscle to become
dormant(keep quite) until the bitch gets pregnancy.
 Then at birth/whelping the dormant L3 stimulated to pass
through milk for 3 weeks & infect pupies/ transmammary
transmission for at least 3 births.
 5. Additionally the dormant L3 in bitch, dogs & in muscle
can migrate develop in SI at stress. So the parasite found in
 PPP is 14-21 days.
 In acute cases anemia is majorly seen on
pupies & respiratory signs & diagnosis high
EPG & haematology but may not be for
dormant & pupies.cause coughing ,
 Rx mebendazole, fenbendazole.
 Control : regular therapy ( for pregnant dog
at least once & nursing pupies twice at 1-2
weeks age & 2 weeks later); hygiene
( bedding & kennel floors); avoid stress.
B. Unicinaria stenocephala: only affect dog, cat fox
in SI ;less than 1 cm found in temperate.

I. Ruminant hook worms :

1. Bunostomum :
 trigonocephalem for shoats & phelobotomum for
cattle ;in SI ; PPP 1-2 months ; 1-3cm ;
 hair like pair of cutting plates in buccal & large
dorsal cone ventrally;
 egg as ostertagia & there also other generas less
important.
 This parasite confuses with Haemoncus &
Ostertagia on EPG & clinically.
5.3 Metastrongloidae
 most indirect life cycle mean need intermediate ,

 L3 infective stage in earth worm or snail & few

direct life cycle;
 site bronchi & trachea of lung;
 includes Metastrongylus of pig (2 spp) ; of shoats
which are generas of Mueleris tiped/fingered tail &
anteriorly to the tail end ;
 Protostrongylus short & broad tail end ;
 Cystocaulus as muellerius but thicker deep end tail
finger & additionally there is knob anteriorly to
differentiate these generas from Dictyoculus filaria;
of dog & cat (direct) Filaroides but Anglostrongylus
5.4 Rhabditoidae : direct & L3 infective
stage
A. Strongyloides ( 5 spp):
 Affect equine, ruminants, pig, dog, cat, man,
poultry in SI & cecum (in poultry).
 Commonly found on young animals &
generally of little pathogenic significance.
 Are distributed in the whole world sp. of
papillosus infect ruminants, ransomi pig,
stercoralis dog cat & man & avium poultry.
 On its development in herbivoras larvated
egg comes out on feces but in others comes
hatched L1
5.5 Ascaridoidae :
 are largest nematodes; larva & adult are important;
 migratory larvae causes in young obstruction ;
 except few no buccal capsule but small opening surrounded with lips ;
 Larvated thick shelled, direct lifecycle, egg as infective (L2)
orally.there are 8 or 10 species.
A. Ascaris sum : H=pig; SI; WW; sum=pig
• largest nematode in pig ;
• up to25- 40cm; gg
• is thicky shell,yellowish round egg & outer irregular/mamillated ;
• occasionally infect cattle & is fatal due to interstial pnuemonia
Lifecycle:
 L2 ingested molt to L3 in liver, to the lung, trachea &coughed
up and swallowed to SI.
-Rx benzimidazole & for migral larva ivermectin injecttable drug.
-Control is hygiene as egg survive longer.
B. Ascaris lumbricoides : H= only man like anclostoma,the same life
cycle and physiology as ascarii sum.
C. Toxocara canis ( all spp are typical asccaridoids ):
 H= dog; SI; WW; up to 10 cm;
 can confuse with leonina but is without finger like process at the
tail end ;
 egg is subglobular brown & thick pitted outer layer.
Lifecycle :
• has complex lifecycle of 4 modes.
1) Typical-
• Ingested L2 from SI with blood to liver ,
• lung moult to L3 & passing trachea ingested to SI to have two
moults.
• This occurs only up to 3 months age of dog.
• The greater age is less frequently & ceases this type at 6 months
age.
2)Where as in pregnant bitch & 3 weeks before birth
• the L2 on the mentioned tissues moves to the lung of
fetus to molt for L3 before birth ( prenatal infection)
except T.cati.
• Then development in young is completed from
circulation to lung, trachea & lastly SI.
• The bitch will infect subsequently for the coming birth
litters.
• But do not forget that the proportion of mobilized L2
will move also travel to SI of the bitch to have the
normal development to have high EPG at time
parturiton.
3) Sucking pups may also be infested by ingestion L3
with milk in 3 weeks lactation.
 But no migration here but develop L4 &L5 in SI.
4) Paratenic hosts like birds & rodents ingest L2 egg &
wait until to be ate by dog & moult to L4 & L5in GIT of
dog.
 The PPP is if paratenic 4-5 weeks if prenatal 3
weeks.
 The signs relate with migration route.
 Rx & control : to adult worms benzimidazole
group ;but needs strategy
The strategy of therapy is :
1) for larva or young on bitch & pupies at 2 weeks of age
& after two weeks to eliminate prenatal infection.
2) Further more again pups at 2 months age eliminate
milk infestation or reduce production of egg & infestation
nearly to dry off
3)Treat purchased pups every 14 days interval 2 times.
4) Treat adult dogs every 6 months.
5) Recently daily treatment 3 weeks before birth & 2-3
weeks post partum ( eliminate transmamary & prenatal).
T.canis have larva migrans in humans children
contaminated with dog feces & can scape to eye to
produce granuloma(ዓይኒ ምዕዋር).
D. T.cati :
• H= cat; SI; WW world wide;
• cervical alae form un arrow head form & posterior
in the oesophageal region
• Is bulged cervical alae as compared to T.leonina ( dog &
cat .
• Lifecycle is similar with canis but no prenatal
infestation.
E. T.vitulorum/ Neoascaris vitulorum :
 H = cattle & buffalo ; SI ;
 in tropics/warm areas ;
 is the largest intestinal parasite & F= up to 30 cm ;
 egg is pitted subglobular & color less with thick shell.
Lifecycle :
 larvae infest calves through milk for 30 days after
parturition.
 No migration in calve.
 PPP is 3-4 weeks. Age after 6 months are resiolstant.
 Control: treat adult pregnant & calves at 3 & 6 weeks
of age.
F. Parascaris equirum :
• H= equine; SI;ww;
• is the largest in equine up to 40 cm;
• simple mouth with 3 lips
• & the male has small caudal alae; egg spherical
pitted & thick shell & brownish.
Lifecycle:
• L2 infective reach intestine ,
• move to liver , lung & bronchotraheal to coughed
up,
• again swallowed to SI.
• Here development L3 to L5.
 3 lips surrounded

C
a
u
d
al
al
a
e

Vulva opening Pitted egg

G. Ascaridia galli :
 caudalestic & wild birds ;Spitted
 up to 8- 12 cm size ;
 egg distinctly oval & smooth & is like Heterakis ;
 is not migratory L2 infective.
H. Heterakis gallinarum :
• H= birds; caecum;
• specule unequal length;
• up to 1.5 cm. Infective L2 & no migration.
• Lifecycle with earthworm paratenic or transport
host taken up by fowl to molt L3, L4 & L5.
5.6 Oxyururoidea :
• are pin worms, direct life cycle, L3 infective stage in egg
• Oxy. Equi : H= equine; cecum,colon & rectum; ww;1-
10cm;
• double oesophageal bulb;
• male has caudal alae;
• single spicule, vulva located anteriorly
Lifecycle :
 dulta found in colon lumen.
 Then after sexing the female migrate to anus & lay
eggs in batch yellowish in color around the perineal
region skin.
 L3 infective from grass or animal through
licking/bitting having embryo transfer from SI to LI to
develop to L4 again feeds to develop to L5 following
to adult in cecum & colon to continue its lifecycle.
 5.7 Spiruroidea (Indirect): characterstics spirally coiled
tail. IHs are arthropods & L3 in as infective stage.
A.Spirocerca lupi :
 is tropical;affects dog;
 oesophgial & larva develop in aorta;
 Reddish pink worm;
 hexagonal mouth;
 prominent caudal alae,
 Spiral tail;
 egg elongated having parallel side & thick shell;
 pathologicaly forms like golf ball in esophagus, coprophagus beetles
are IH (develop to L1,L2 &L3) along with swallow as L3 then
penetrating stomach moves to aorta & back to esophagus forming
granuloma until L5 & emerge to the lumen when opening exist as
some times closed.
Rx & control : diethylcarbamazine and disophenol; do not feed
uncooked bird meat as paratenic host.
B. Habronema muscae (there is one more spp) :
• H= equine; skin & eye;
• slender white;
• Male tail spiral;1-2.5cm;
• Elongated thin shell egg;
• IH= mucid flies which pick up L1 with egg to develop to L3.
• Thus when muscid rest around mouth passes or swallowed to
continue the rest of its development.
C;.Thelezia (5 spp):
• H=equine,canine & ruminants;
• 1-2 cm; cuticle prominet stration anteriorly, viviporous
• Life cycle:- egg laid by female worm having L1 while
feeding in lacrimal fluid of host & develop in fly up to L3
following as IH when feeds on secretion of host eye dropped
& develop to adult on host.
Rx & control :
• manual removal; ivermectin, levamisole as 1 %.
• Difficult to control b/ce of ubiquitous nature of the fly.
There are also other generas like Gnathostoma who require 2
IHs.
5.8 Filaroidea: have indirect life cycle in insects &
L3 infective stage in; none of them inhibit alimentary
canal
A. Prafilaria bovicola:H=
• cattle; IH=mucid flies;
• Is found in Africa, Asia , Southern Europe &
Sweden;
• site skin & subcutaneous forming nodule &
haemorrhage ; slender white 3-6 cm;
• anterior numerious papilae & cercular ridges,
• small thick shell egg & embronated ;
• now ELISA developed for diagnosis ;
• sample is from cutaneous bleeding.
Life cycle:-
• Egg or larvae taken while feeding the fly on host in
wound or skin then develop in the IH to L3 which later
while again feeding on similar organ & make to pass to
host to develop to L5 in vascular tissue of skin finally to
adult. Dairy mainly affected
Rx & control :- i
• Ivermectin, nitroxynil, levamisole but weak & control is
difficult due to long PPP. T
• The first 2 can produce meat condemination as cause
bleeding if more than 70 days after rx.
B. Parafilaria multipapilosa :
• H= eqine; site s/c & inter muscular;
• IH heamatobia development as above & common in Africa
as well.
• Is more nodular & rx difficult but ivermectin can be used.
C. Stephanophilaria (5 spp), stilesi, assamensis etc:
• H= cattle & buffalo;
• skin but depend on other spp infect other sites;
• IHs mucids;
• not reported in Africa;
• Length smaller than 1cm & mouth opening sarrounded by
spiny colar.
• Not reported yet in Ethiopia but can exist.
• Dignosis :- with scraping difficult but lesion & endemicity.
• Rx using organophosphorous compounds & also ivermectin.
• Control: use pesticide & reppellent to the not clear which type.
D. Dirofilaria immitus :
• H= dog,cat & occasionally man;IHs mosquitoes ;
• Right ventricle, pulmonary artery & posterior venacava; is
tropical/warm areas.
• Common in tropics.
• Lifecycle : adult on hear or near blood vessle;
• release microfilaria in to blood;
• Ingested infected blood by female mosquito; develop to L3
& wait on mouth of vector;
• infect host while feeding on blood; develop in to L4 & L5
in SC then move to site.
• PPP is minimum 6 months.
• Clinically: listless/weak, chronic soft coughing,
hemolytic ( icterus haemoglobin ureau), oedema
& ascites
• Epidemiology: density of dogs, vector ,long patent
infection/with no sign period, short development
period L1 to L3 & unclear vector.
Diagnosis:
• Vascular signs, blood lyses to concentrate parasite/ microfilaria
( 1 part of blood to 9 part formalin centrifuged & the sediment
stain with 1 % methyl blue), have length of >300 micrometer
length (20-30 cm) to differentiate with others, tapered head &
straight tail;
• not ensheathed tail; ELISA is developing;
• histo-chemical staining to differentiate from
Adult D.immitus
in the right
ventricle of the
heart

Microflarae
of D.immitus
from lysis
blood
Species of recondium with blunt head & hooked
tail.
Rx & control : the dog need to be tested for function
of heart, kidney & liver; IV thiacetarsamide twice /day
for 3 days. Following to treat larva after 6 weeks
levamisole is given 10-14 days. As mosquito difficult
to control medication to host is necessary.
E. Onchocerca: on cattle 4 spp & affect also
equine mainly sp of reticulata; IHs Culicoides &
Simulinium; site ligaments & intermuscular
connective tissue ;2-6 cm cylender & tightly coiled
in tissue nodule;
lifecycle:- is like dirofilaria but microfilaria is not in
blood but in tissues , occur in Ethiopia &
rx:- using ivermectin.
Diagnosis:- depth skin scraping in warm water &
incubate for 6 hours later centrifuge & coiled
movement in solution.
Genus Setaria is harmless.
5.9 Trichuroidea : direct or indirect in aquatic &
L1 infective
A. Trichuris (4spp) : H= ovis for shoats,
globulosa for cattle, suis for pig & vulpis for
dog; LI/ caecum;4-6 cm long; thicker posteriorly
& filament nous anteriorly/thinner called as
whip worm; male tail is coiled & single specule;
female tail is merely curved; egg lemon shape
plug at both ends .
Lifecycle : infective is L1 with in egg, ingested egg
unplugged its end & released L1 penetrate glands of
cecal mucosa that develop up to L5. PPP 6-12 weeks.
Clinical signs occur sporadically when high & more on
dog & pigs with watery diarrhea.
Epidemiology:- survival of egg in animal houses for 3-4
years.
Diagnosis:- fecal egg count. Rx : benzimidazole
compounds, ivermectin, levamisole for dogs
mebendazole & dichlorophos can be choice.
In control:- more attention prophylactic rx to dogs &
pigs. For man T.trichiura is similar in morphology with
suis but are host specific.
B.Capilaria spp in birds & mammals ; 1-5 cm
filamentos; egg bipolar like trichuris
C.Trichnella spiralis: is zoonosis; ww; H= most
mammals ( mainly pig & man) ; adult in SI
larvae in striated muscle ( massater, intercostal
& diaphragm); WW; because of life span adult
is rarely found; adult 1-3mm;
life cycle:- adult & larvae in one host as adult on villi
of SI after fertilization male dies & female goes deeper
producing L1 that travels from lymphatic to blood
vessels to be in skeletal muscle forming encapsulated
as coiled position as nurse cell which later can be
infective stage reaming for years. After this if larvae
swallowed by another host L1 liberated in SI & molts
L1-L5 to continue;
Diagnosis:- in meat inspection occasionally seen but
good take suspected sample muscle crush & look the
larvae. ELISA also is used.
Rx:- with group benzimidazole (for adult & larvae)
Additional & general information on morphology &
life cycle grouping on nematodes as my part.
1.Morphology
-Bursate & none bursate anatomy at the tail part of
nematode adult parasites
-This anatomical feature is important for males
which have bursate but not females. Its physiology is
anatomy that support copulation of male and
female. It contains one bursal lobe/ cover that have
ventral, lateral, externo-dorsal & dorsal rays ( 2-3
rays) if freshly and well formalized during collection
of adult parasites.
-The bursate are trichostrongloidea, strongloidea,
Metastrongloidea but the rest none bursate.
2. Types of life cycle the direct are families of
Trichostrongloidea, Strongyloidea, Rhabitoidea,
Ascaridoidea, Oxyuroidea & Trichuroidea ( 6). The remaining
Metastrongloidea, Filaroidea, Spiruroidea &
Dictophymatoidea have indirect life cycle but only
Trichuroidea direct or indirect.
Regarding infectivity stage of larva L2 in egg is infective for
Ascaridoidea, L1 Trichuroidea & the rest L3 where by
Spiruroidea & Filaroidea from insect and Metastrongloidea
from other intermediate hosts but others not.
3. Other means for identification of M , F general
morphology:
Other than bursa for male testis difficult to see in none
stained mounted adult parasite , spicule mostly paired can be
seen through unstained & appreciated length to shape and
finally cloaca depression can be seen similarly. Female has
ovary un distinct towards anterior in none stained, uterus
with egg visible,vulva/ovijector posterior some times visible
with flap & anus not well seen. Generally any observant has
first to define which is anterior mouth part and tail/posterior
part of any stage of nematode to easily go for identification.
Additionally for identification & generally females are longer
in size than male and there are 6 types of esophagus that are
help full for identification called as Rhabiditi form and Double
bulb can confuse for identification which need experience but
others are easy for differentiation which are Filariform, Bulb,
Muscular glandular and Trichuroid.
Further more Trichostronglodea have small buccal
capsule; Stronglodea have well developed buccal
capsule and usually with leaf teeth crown;
Metastronglodea small buccal capsule;
Rhabditoidea small worms with small buccal
capsule; Ascaridoidea large white worms;
Oxyuroidea female has pointed tail; Spiruroidea
female has spiral tail; Filariodea long thin worm;
Trichuroidea whip like or hair like worm.
In relation to egg morphology differences:
- In Trichostrolidea F. Nematodirus genus has large ovoid
with distict morula cells; In Strogloidea - Syngamus has egg
of both end operculated; Metastrongloidea -
Metastrogylus has rough oval thick shell, larvated
In Rhibtoidea - Strongloides egg has thin shell oval
shape & very large two morula cells; in Ascaridoidea
Ascaris genus irregular thick shell round; Toxocara,
Paraascaris (Toxocara & Neoascaris other names)
rounded brown pitted outer shell but T.leonia &
T.canis sps. have smooth outer but all still thick;
differently thick oval shape in generas of Ascaridia &
Hetarakis ; In Oxyuroidea -Oxyuris has yellow ovoid
with mucoid plug at one end; In Spiruroidea-
Spirocerca has elongated with parallel sides egg,
Habronema genus has elongated thin shell larvated
egg, In Filaroidea – Parafilaria has rounded thick small egg
and finally in Trichuroidea – Trchuris has lemon shape egg.
The rest unmentioned unless they vary in length & diameter
are more or less oval thin & smooth shell, have none
distinct morula cells & can be larvated depending on their
type of family and/or group and/or species. So for genus
and/or species identification is better to do larva culture for
further identification regardless areas of distribution, type
of host, location of the parasite in the host & their virulent
to animals. In fact remember that the criteria mentioned
are also help full for identification for those listed above
nematodes that have different shapes of egg. To
summarized nearly 16 genera out of nearly 30 have
different egg that help to identify the parasite or infection
together with the other criteria including egg load per
gram, age, condition of nutrition and/ or management
stress and clinical signs.
 Foundations for control in Helminthosis
1. The role of veterinary officer in the control of
helminth diseases in the tropics
 Is the merit of treatment or control in light of local
conditions.
 Giving recommendation to the owner regarding
optimal methods for treatment or control.
 Providing the owner means of treatment or carry out
minimum procedures to facilitate healing.
 When the disease is hazard to human health or to
livestock take all necessary actions.
 Have records on the pattern of the disease specific to
the local area.
2. Economic importance
2.1 Observed losses : deaths, wasting & condemnation of animal
product but of human food
2.2 Hidden losses : reduced live weight, poor feed conversion
efficiency, decreasing at decreasing rate of milk production, poor
fleece production so on. In aggregate these losses are probably
more serious than obvious losses. However often are noticed
due to :
 Are ubiquitous (ever- present, every where)
 Its process is insidious/dangerous, chronic & enzootic
 Most losses occurs when poor condition is regarded as normal.
E.g: on young ages, growing animals & those under physiological
stress
2.3 Control costs : drug, wages, fence, inefficient use of land,
transport so on
3.General considerations of control
3.1 Aims of control :
 Eliminate or reduce prevalence of zoonotic parasites
 Improve profitability of animal industry if then is essential that cost of
control is less than cost of the disease
 Increase aesthetic acceptability of pet animals
3.2 Types of control :
3.2.1 Reduction of parasites prevalence may be achieved by reducing the
chance of survival or development as example : introducing poison
(anthelminthic, larvicidal so on) & as
Selecting or developing resistant hosts
Disturbing the larva microclimate
Introducing predator for hosts or parasite
Keeping apart the host & the parasite
3.2.2 To increase the ability of the host to tackle the parasite as:
Better nutrition
Special protection to young & under stress
Supportive therapy
3.3 Limitations of control
1. Financial
2. Knowledge : is a contribution of research &
education. The essential data includes:
 Species of parasite & host involved
 Lifecycle of the parasite
 Bionomics of the free living stage in lifecycle
 Details of host parasite relationship
 Local climatic, agricultural, sociological &
economic factors
3. Fecundity of most helminths
4. Pre-existing efficient natural checks
5. Danger of breakdown
4.Classifications of anthelminthics & Preparations
This classification is mainly dependent on their chemical
structure:
4.1 Benzimidazoles & probenzimidazloes
Currently most antheminthics belong to this groups.
Historically:
 Thiabendazole introduced 1961
 Parbendazole 1967
 Cambendazole 1970
 Mebendazole 1971
 Oxibendazole 1973
 Fenbendazole 1974
Oxfendazole 1975
Albendazole 1976
Triclabendazole 1981
Thiophanate & Febantel are probenzimidazole which are
metabolize in the body to active benzimidazole.
Benzimidazoles are highly effective against most stomach
and intestinal nematodes. The more recently introduced
may also are active against lungworms, tape worms & liver
flukes.
Triclabendazole is exceptional & effective only against liver
fluke.
4.2. Imidazothiazoles : Levamisole & are highly effective a
wide range of stomach & intestinal nematodes. It is also
immuno-potentiator.
4.3. Tetrahydropyramidines : are like Morantel & Pyrantel
& highly effective against stomach & intestinal nematodes
4.4. Avermectins: Ivermectin is active on a wide range of
stomach & intestinal nematode plus lungworms at very
low dose rates. Is also effective on a number of
4.5.Salicylanilides & substituted phenols :
These are Oxyclozanide, Rafoxanide, Nitroxynil, Bithionol & Brothianide
are effctive against adult liver fluke. Some of these are also active against
other trematodes & blood sucking nematodes. But Resorantel is
particularly effective on paramphistomum. Disophenol has prolonged
residual action on Haemonchus contortus.
Niclosamide is highly effective against tape worm and some trematodes.
4.6.Diphenoxyalkyl ethers : Diamphenethide is marketed only for
treatment of Fasciola in sheep (is effective to all above one week old
stages.
4.7.Organophasphates: Dichlorvos, Haloxon & Metriphonate are
effective on stomach & intestinal nematodes of horses
4.8.Chlorinated hydrocarbons : Carbon tetrachloride, hexachlorophene
& Hexachloroethane are used for Fasciola in ruminants. Now have been
superseded by modern flukicides.
4.9. Piperazines: Diethylcarbamazine is used for lungworms & different
salts of piperazine are active on Ascarids & Oxyurids.
4.10.Others : Nitroscanate, Praziquintel, Bunamidine & Arecoline are
active against tape worms. Praziquintel is very effective on Schistosomes
and some intestinal trematodes.
Regarding anthelminthic preparations as an example the following formulations exist
based on the company , type of drug & cost effectiveness without changing its potency.
Moreover the manufacturer instruction/leaflet/prescription has to be consider on :

 To which type of worm & stage of development is active

 Class of stock
 Dose rate
 Withholding period of animal products

1. Drench & paste forms: If suspension shake well containers to ensure adequate
dispersion of the chemical in the solvent. Although most modern anthelminthes
are safe assess body weight to avoid under dose. Ensure drenching gun is well
calibrated and in good working order.
2. Injectable preparations : Levamisole, Ivermectin, Diethylcarbamazine,
Rafoxanide, Nitroxynil, & Paraziquintale are mostly in injectable forms.
Abcessation is problem if not sterile needle is used & inject on area where there
is low quality meat cuts.
3. Pour-on : this contain lemisole or ivermectin
4. In feed : appears more convenient but allow little control on the amount
consumed by individual animal unless are fed separately or in small supervised
groups. For this reason is less satisfactory method. Thus the following points are
important for assurance :-
i. Note either the drug to be given in single feed or over period of several days
ii. Ensure through mixed
iii. Avoid using powdered formulations in pelleted rations as the powder will sift through pelletes to
the bottom of feed trough
iv. Allow adequate feed trough space for each animal
v. If possible watch reluctant feeding animals and give separately
vi. Only use on animals accustomed type of concentrate/ration
5. Medicated blocks: This has similar disadvantage as feed preparation and problem of ensuring
each animal continues to receive an adequate dose over a period of time. However the
necessary precautions are:
vii. Only use on animals that are accustomed to ordinary blocks & remove other feed blocks when
medicated are made available
viii. Ensure adequate number of blocks are available for the number and weights of animals being
treated
ix. Identify reluctants and treat separately
6. Slow- release device : Presently about two are available designed to be lodge in the
recticulum/rumen of cattle over 100Kg in weight. Neither should be used in lactating dairy
cattle or in those with in 6 months calving. These are :
Paratec ( Pfizer product): is metal cylinder having Morantel tartrate in slowly dissolving vehicle
& releases the drug for about 90 days
Autoworm (Coopers product) : is pulse release device relying on corrosion of a central metal core
to subsequently expose 5 doses of Oxfenbendazole at 3 weeks interval the first being released 3
weeks after administration
• Anthelminthic Drug Resistance:
• Although when chemicals are on use resistance is inevitable
through proper dosing, scaling of weight and not frequently use of
the same drug it can be minimized. At present is becoming common
problem in the world which are using the same drug for so many years.
• Historically it was first detected the resistant for anthelminthics
commonly in Australia and to a lesser extent in other countries of
strains of H.contortus to Benzimidazole, Levamisole & Morantel
indicating for the need alternate drug with different mode of action.
Here side resistance within a single group & multiple is common.
However true cross resistance in which multiple resistance is
conferred by a single gene does not occur except in so far as
resistance to Levamisole also confers resistance to Morantel group
since both have similar mode of action.
• The greater the efficacy of anthelminthic the more is frequently
used the more likely is the onset of resistance.
• The common & usually advantageous practice is moving treated
grazing animals on to clean pasture tends to increase the rate at
which drug resistance will develop.
5. Diagnosis
The advent/ start use of broad spectrum anthelminthic is no
substitute for diagnosis. However the blanket application is
excluded due to economic grounds even to short term. For long
term the indiscriminate use of drugs will be discourage for
ecological reasons but enlighten application of specific agents may
always be crucial in the long and short program of applications and
clinical outbreaks. So this indicate the demand of clear
understanding of the organism evolved.
Relevant diagnostics include:
 CLINICAL : usually the presented signs. Occasionally are fairly
specific but most in helminth diseases are not specific such as loss of
wt, anorexia, anemia, diarrhea/diarrhoea specially in light infections.
 HISTORY: often the greatest diagnostic significance. Which are
as example--- Was there outbreak of helminth disease in the past?
Was the animal exposed to environment which makes infection
high? And others use of irrigation water & pasture, history of
pasture or its source , age of the animal, whether given anthelminth
 POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION: gives specific spot check at
one time. Is morphological identification and direct count of the
worms but consider number can be lower because of self cure or
anthelminthic treatment before death.
Here the host site parasite lists given in text book together with an
idea of the approximate size of the different spp are useful in
making a tentative diagnosis which again can be confirmed by
microscopic examination. There is little merit to memorizing & such
lists as names can come when readily with use.
The ability to use microscope correctly & hence to see the features
present in the specimen is the most important factors in the
identification of helminths & especially of nematodes.
 FECAL EXAMINATION: rapid & fairly specific. Quantitatively
unreliable due to concentration of eggs or larvae in the feces may
vary with several factors inaddtion to the number of worms present.
Example: variation in host resistance, fecal consistency,species, age
of the heliminth present , uneven distribution in feces so on
 OTHER METHODS : example serum enzyme assay, histology,
pasture larva studies, eosinophilia, serological tests etc
 6.Epidemilogy:
Remember that a very small proportion of the
individuals of any helminth species complete the
life cycle
Unsuitble host host Ejected by host
sp Adult Anthelminthics
Resistant host worm in Infertile
Abnormal migration host
in host
Host parasite
relationship Egg in
Infective
form Infection CORE Contamination excreta

Microclimate

Not on pasture
Free living fails to develop
Fails to develop population and dies
& dies