Anatomy PD 317

SKELETAL SYSTEM Dr. Faheema Siddiqui

Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology
Dow College of Pharmacy
Dow University of Health Sciences1
“People are encouraged to limit food intake and exercise regularly to prevent obesity and
stay healthy. But people who go to extremes can compromise the health of their bones.
Premature osteoporosis can occur in young women caused by extreme dieting and/or
excessive exercise. These women have low levels of the estrogens, hormones that help to
keep bones strong. Extreme dieting behavior may mean a minimal calcium intake,
which then limits the body’s bone-building ability. People who build strong bones
during adolescence and young adulthood reduce their likelihood of developing
osteoporosis later in life
The entire framework of bones and their cartilages constitute the skeletal system. The
study of bone structure and the treatment of bone disorders is termed osteology
osteo- bone; -logy study of).

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Skeletal System

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FUNCTIONS OF BONE AND THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
1.Support. The skeleton provides a structural framework for the body and providing
points of attachment for the tendons and skeletal muscles.
2.Protection The skeleton protects many internal organs from injury. E.g, cranial
bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones) protect the spinal cord, and the rib cage
protects the heart and lungs.
3.Assistance in movement. Because most skeletal muscles attach to bones, when
muscles contract, they pull on bones. Together bones and muscles produce movement.
4. Mineral homeostasis Bone tissue stores several minerals, especially calcium and
phosphorus. On demand, bone releases minerals into the blood.
5.Blood cell production. Within certain bones a connective tissue called red bone
marrow produces RBCs, WBCs, and platelets, a process called hemopoiesis.
6.Triglyceride storage. Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which
store triglycerides. The stored triglycerides are a potential chemical energy reserve.

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 BONES
Bone is the hardest part of connective tissue in the human
body…

• Functions of bones:
– provides structural framework for the body
– Movement
– Forming protective cavity
– Hemopoiesis
– Reservoir for minerals
– Triglyceride storage. Yellow bone marrow

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BONE FORMATION
The process by which bone forms is called ossification (ossi- bone; -fication
making). Bone formation occurs in four principal situations:
(1)the initial formation of bones in an embryo and fetus,
(2) the growth of bones during infancy, childhood, and adolescence until their
adult sizes are reached,
(3) the remodeling of bone (replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue
throughout life); and
(4) the repair of fractures (breaks in bones) throughout life.
Bone Remodeling
Like skin, bone forms before birth but continually renews itself. Bone remodeling is
the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. It involves bone
resorption, the removal of minerals and collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts, and
bone deposition, the addition of minerals and collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts.
Thus, bone resorption results in the destruction of bone extracellular matrix, while
bone deposition results in the formation of bone extracellular matrix.
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TYPES OF BONES

Long bones include those in the thigh (femur), leg

(tibia and fibula), arm (humerus), forearm (ulna
and radius) and fingers and toes (phalanges).
•Short bones are somewhat cube-shaped and
nearly equal in length and width. include most
wrist and ankle bones.
Flat bones are generally thin, provide protection,
and provide extensive surfaces for muscle
attachment. E.g. cranial bones,; the sternum and
ribs; and the scapulae (shoulder blades).
Irregular bones have complex shapes and cannot
be grouped into any of the previous categories.
Such bones include the vertebrae and some facial
bones
Sesamoid bones embedded within a tendon.E.g. 9
 Types of BONES
– Long bones. – Irregular bones.
• Longer in length. • E.g. Vertebrae.
• Consist of shaft and two extremities.
• E.g. femur, tibia and fibula.

– Flat bones.
• E.g. sternum ribs and most skull bones.

– Short bones.
• E.g. carpals.
– Sesamoid bones.
• embedded within a tendon.
• E.g. patella.

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STRUCTURE OF BONES

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STRUCTURE OF BONE
Macroscopic Structure of Bone. A typical long bone consists of the following seven
parts:
1. The diaphysis is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main portion of the
bone.
2. The epiphyses are the proximal and distal ends of the bone.
Diaphysis and epiphysis are separated with Epiphyseal Cartilage
3. The metaphyses are the regions in a mature bone where the diaphysis joins the
epiphyses. Contains an epiphyseal plate (in growing bones)
4. The articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the
epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation (joint) with another bone. Articular
cartilage reduces friction. Because articular cartilage lacks a perichondrium, repair of
damage is limited.

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A long bone.

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STRUCTURE OF BONE: Macroscopic Structure of Bone.
5. The periosteum (peri- around) is a tough sheath of dense irregular connective tissue
completely covers long bones (except within joints). contains blood vessels. The
periosteum contains bone-forming cells that enable bone to grow in diameter or
thickness, but not in length. It also protects the bone, helps in fracture repair, helps
nourish bone tissue, and serves as an attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
Outer layer: tough and fibrous, for protection.
Inner layer: contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
6. The medullary cavity or marrow cavity is a hollow, cylindrical space within the
diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.
7. The endosteum (endo- within) is a thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity. It
contains a single layer of bone-forming cells. Thin layer of connective tissue that lines
the inner surface of the bony tissue that forms the medullary cavity of long bones.

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Microscopic Structure of Bone

•Four major types of cells are present in bone tissue:

•Osteogenic cells or Osteoprogenitor cells

• osteoblasts
•osteocytes and
• osteoclasts

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 Osteogenic cells
– Osteogenic cells (genic producing) are unspecialized stem
cells derived from mesenchyme, the tissue from which
almost all connective tissues are formed. They are the only
bone cells to undergo cell division; the resulting cells
develop into osteoblasts.
– Osteogenic cells are found along the inner portion of the
periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the canals within bone
that contain blood vessels.

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 OSTEOBLASTS
• Osteoblasts are bone-building cells. They synthesize and secrete collagen
fibers and other organic components needed to build the extracellular
matrix of bone tissue. As osteoblasts surround themselves with
extracellular matrix, they become trapped in their secretions and become
osteocytes. (Note: Blasts in bone or any other connective tissue secrete
extracellular matrix.)

•Present in,
Deeper layers of periosteum,
• Centers of ossification of immature bones,
• Ends of the diaphysis adjacent to the epiphyseal cartilage of long bones,
• And at the site of fracture.
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 Collagen Fiber

Organic Component
Collagen Fiber
Collagen fibers Trapped
Osteoblast Secretes Osteoblast
and other organic
components Osteocyte

Organic Component

Extracellular matrix= collagen fibers and other organic components

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 OSTEOCYTES (cytes cells)
• These are mature, main bone cells in
bone tissue that monitor and maintain
the bone tissue, maintain its daily
metabolism, such as the exchange of
nutrients and wastes with the blood.
• Like osteoblasts, osteocytes do not undergo
cell division. (Note: Cytes in bone or any other
tissue maintain the tissue.)

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 OSTEOCLASTS (clast break)
• Osteoclasts are huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as
50 monocytes (a type of white blood cell) and are concentrated in
the endosteum.
• They release powerful lysosomal enzymes and acids that digest the
protein and mineral components of the bone extracellular matrix.
This breakdown of bone extracellular matrix, termed resorption, is
part of the normal development, growth, maintenance, and repair
of bone.

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Bone is not completely solid but has many small spaces between its
cells and extracellular matrix components. Some spaces are channels
for blood vessels that supply bone cells with nutrients. Other spaces
are storage areas for red bone marrow.
Depending on the size and distribution of the spaces, the regions of
a bone may be categorized as compact or spongy. Overall, about
80% of the skeleton is compact bone and 20% is spongy bone.

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COMPACT (cortical) bone:
CANCELLOUS (trabecular, spongy) bone:

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 Compact (cortical) bone
•Microscopically Compact bone tissue is arranged in repeating
structural units called osteons or haversian systems.
•Each osteon consists of a central (haversian) canal.
•A central or haversian canal contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels. The central canals run longitudinally through the
bone.
•Around the canals are concentric lamellae (rings of hard, calcified
extracellular matrix: collagen fiber and calcium and phosphorus).
•Between the lamellae are small spaces called lacunae, which contain
osteocytes. Radiating in all directions from the lacunae are tiny
canaliculi (small channels), which are filled with extracellular fluid.
•The canaliculi connect lacunae with one another and with the central
canals. Thus, canal system throughout the bone provides many routes
for nutrients and oxygen to reach the osteocytes and for wastes to
diffuse away.
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Compact (cortical) bone

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 Cancellous (trabecular, spongy) bone
Spongy Bone Tissue In contrast to compact bone tissue, spongy bone tissue
does not contain osteons, it consists of units called trabeculae (little beams;
singular is trabecula), an irregular thin columns of bone. The macroscopic
spaces between the trabeculae of some bones are filled with red bone marrow.
Within each trabecula are concentric lamellae, osteocytes that lie in lacunae, and
canaliculi radiating from the lacunae.
Spongy bone tissue makes up most of the bone tissue of short, flat, and
irregularly shaped bones. Spongy bone tissue is different from compact bone
tissue in two respects. First, spongy bone tissue is light, which reduces the
overall weight of a bone so that it moves more readily when pulled by a skeletal
muscle. Second, the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue support and protect the red
bone marrow. The spongy bone tissue in the hip bones, ribs, breastbone,
backbones, and the ends of long bones is the only site where red bone marrow
is found and, thus, the site of blood cell production in adults.

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Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less
dense than compact bone. Spongy
bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars
of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow

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 Bones of Human
body and their
arrangement

• Axial skeleton.
• Appendicular skeleton.

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 Axial skeleton
• This part consists of the
– Skull,
– Vertebral column,
– Ribs and
– Sternum
• Together the bones forming these structures constitute the
central bony core of the body, the axis.

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 Skull
• Rests on the upper end of the vertebral column.
• divided into two parts:
– The cranium and
– The face.

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 Cranium
• Formed by a number of flat and irregular Bones
• It has a base upon which the brain rests
• In the mature skull the joints (sutures: fibrous joint, type of dense
connective tissue) between the bones are immovable
• The bones have numerous perforations through which nerves, blood
and lymph vessels pass

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 Bones of cranium are

• 1 frontal bone
• 2 parietal bones
• 2 temporal bones
• 1 occipital bone
• 1 sphenoid bone
• 1 ethmoid bone.

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• 1 Frontal bone.
– This is the bone of the forehead. It forms part of the orbital
cavities (eye sockets) and the prominent ridges above the
eyes, the supraorbital margins.
– The coronal suture joins the frontal and parietal bones and
other fibrous joints are formed with the sphenoid,
zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal and ethmoid bones.

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• 2 Parietal bones.
– Form the sides and roof of the skull.
– Articulation: (a joint or an area where two bones are attached,
formed of fibrous connective tissue )
• They articulate with each other at the sagittal suture
• with the frontal bone at the coronal suture
• with the occipital bone at the lambdoidal suture
• and with the temporal bones at the squamous sutures.

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• 2 Temporal bones.
• These bones lie one on each side of the head, form the inferior (lower) sides of the
cranium and part of the cranial floor
• The squamous part is the thin fan-shaped part that articulates with the parietal
bone.

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• The zygomatic process the temporal and zygomatic bones join to form the zygomatic arch (cheekbone).
• The mastoid part contains the mastoid process, is a rounded projection of the temporal bone, a thickened
region behind the ear. It serves as a point of attachment for several neck muscles.
• The temporal bone articulates with the mandible at the temporomandibular joint.
• Immediately behind this articulating surface is the external auditory meatus (auditory canal).

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The mandibular fossa (depression) forms a joint with a projection on the
mandible (lower jawbone) called the condylar process to form the
temporomandibular joint (TMJ). 49
• 1 Occipital bone.
• This bone forms the back of the head and part of the base of the skull.
• It has immovable joints with the parietal, temporal and sphenoid bones.
The foramen magnum (magnum large), the largest foramen in the skull, passes through the occipital bone. Within this
foramen are the medulla oblongata of the brain, connecting to the spinal cord, and the vertebral and spinal arteries.

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• 1 Sphenoid bone.
The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone. It lies at the middle part of the base of
the skull. This bone is called the keystone of the cranial floor because it
articulates with all the other cranial bones (occipital, temporal, parietal and
frontal bones), holding them together.
The shape of the sphenoid bone resembles a bat with outstretched wings. The
cubelike central portion of the sphenoid bone contains the sphenoidal
sinuses, which drain into the nasal cavity.
On the superior surface of the sphenoid is a depression called the hypophyseal
fossa, which contains the pituitary gland

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• 1 Ethmoid bone.
• The ethmoid bone is sponge like in appearance and is located in
the anterior part of the cranial floor between the orbits. It forms
part of the anterior portion of the cranial floor, the medial wall
of the orbits, the superior portions of the nasal septum, a
partition that divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides,
and most of the side walls of the nasal cavity. The ethmoid bone
contains 3 to 18 air spaces, or “cells,” that give this bone a sieve
like appearance. The ethmoidal cells together form the
ethmoidal sinuses. The perpendicular plate forms the upper
portion of the nasal septum. The cribriform plate forms the roof
of the nasal cavity
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 Face
• The shape of the face changes dramatically during the first two years after
birth. Growth of the face ceases at about 16 years of age. The skeleton of the
face is formed by 13 bones in addition to the frontal bone, already described.
• These include,
– 2 zygomatic or cheek bones
– 1 maxilla (originated as 2)
– 2 nasal bones
– 2 lacrimal bones
– 1 vomer
– 2 palatine bones
– 2 inferior conchae
– 1 mandible (originated as 2).
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 2 Zygomatic
(cheek bones)
• The Zygomatic bones
form,
– The cheeks
– and part of the floor
and lateral walls of the
orbital cavities

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 1 Maxilla
•
(upper jaw
The maxilla forms,
bone)
– The upper jaw,
– The anterior part of the roof of
the mouth,
– The lateral walls of the nasal
cavity
– and part of the floor of the
orbital cavities.
• The alveolar process (small
cavity) of the maxilla is an arch
that contains the alveoli (sockets)
for the maxillary (upper) teeth.
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 2 Nasal bones
• These are two small flat
bones. They are placed side
by side at the middle and
upper part of the face, and
form, by their junction, "the
bridge" of the nose.

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2 Lacrimal bones
• The paired lacrimal bones
(lacrim-teardrop), the smallest
bones of the face, are thin and
roughly resemble a fingernail
in size and shape.

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 Vomer
• Inside the nasal area of the skull, the nasal
cavity is divided into halves by the nasal
septum. The upper portion of the nasal septum
is formed by the perpendicular plate of the
ethmoid bone and the lower portion is
the vomer bone. Each side of the nasal cavity is
triangular in shape, with a broad inferior space
that narrows superiorly. The vomer is a
roughly triangular bone on the floor of the
nasal cavity that articulates inferiorly with both
the maxillae and palatine bones.

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 Palatine bones
• The two L-shaped palatine bones (roof of mouth) are fused and form the posterior
portion of the hard palate, part of the floor and lateral wall of the nasal cavity, and a
small portion of the floors of the orbits.

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 Inferior conchae
• The two inferior nasal conchae bones project into the nasal cavity
below the superior and middle nasal conchae of the ethmoid bone.
They serve the same function of filtration of air before it passes into
the lungs.

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 Mandible
A Curved body
– Ramus contain,
• Condylar process (temporomandibular joint).
• Coronoid process.
The mandible (to chew), or lower jawbone, is the
largest, strongest facial bone. It is the only
movable skull bone. mandible has a condylar
process. This process articulates with the
mandibular fossa of the temporal bone to form
the temporomandibular joint. The mandible, like
the maxilla, has an alveolar process containing
the alveoli (sockets) for the mandibular (lower)
teeth. The mental foramen is a hole in the
mandible that can be used by dentists to reach
the mental nerve when injecting anesthetics.
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Coronoid process.
a flattened triangular projection above the angle of the
jaw where the temporalis muscle attached.

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• Hyoid bone.
– This is an isolated horse-shoe-shaped bone lying in the soft tissues of
the neck just above the larynx and below the mandible.
• Sinuses.
– present in the sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary and frontal bones.

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Vertebral column

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The vertebral column, also called the spine, spinal column, or
backbone, is composed of a series of bones called vertebrae The
vertebral column functions as a strong, flexible rod that can rotate and
move forward, backward, and sideways. It encloses and protects the
spinal cord, supports the head, and serves as a point of attachment for
the ribs, pelvic girdle, and the muscles of the back.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
The total number of vertebrae during early development is 33. Then,
several vertebrae in the sacral and coccygeal regions fuse. As a result,
the adult vertebral column typically contains 26 vertebrae. These are
distributed as follows:
■ 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck region.
■ 12 thoracic vertebrae (thorax chest) posterior to the thoracic cavity.
■ 5 lumbar vertebrae support the lower back.
■ 1 sacrum consists of five fused sacral vertebrae.
■ 1 coccyx usually consists of four fused coccygeal vertebrae
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the cervical and lumbar curves are
convex (bulging out), and the thoracic
and sacral curves are concave
(cupping in). The curves of the
vertebral column increase its strength,
help maintain balance in the upright
position, absorb shocks during walking
and running, and help protect the
vertebrae from breaks

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The cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae are
movable, but the sacrum and coccyx are
immovable. Between adjacent vertebrae from the
second cervical vertebra to the sacrum are
intervertebral discs. Each disc has an outer ring
of fibrocartilage and a soft, pulpy, highly elastic
interior. The discs form strong joints, permit
various movements of the vertebral column, and
absorb vertical shock.

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Vertebrae
Vertebrae in different regions of the spinal column vary in size,
shape, and detail, but they are similar enough that we can
discuss the structure and functions of a typical vertebra.
■ The body, the thick, disc-shaped front portion, is the weight-
bearing part of a vertebra.
■ The vertebral arch extends backwards from the body of the
vertebra. It is formed by two short, thick processes, the pedicles
(little feet), which project backward from the body to unite with
the laminae. The laminae (thin layers) are the flat parts of the
arch and end in a single sharp, slender projection called a
spinous process.
The hole between the vertebral arch and body contains the
spinal cord and is known as the vertebral foramen. Together,
the vertebral foramina of all vertebrae form the vertebral cavity.

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Vertebral Body
The vertebral body is the main portion of the vertebra. It bears about 80
percent of the load while standing and provides an attachment for
the discs between the vertebrae.
Pedicles
Each vertebra has two cylinder-shaped projections (pedicles) of hard
bone that stick out from the back part of the vertebral body, providing
side protection for the spinal cord and nerves. The pedicles also serve
as a bridge, joining the front and back parts of the vertebra.
Lamina
The lamina is the roof of the spinal canal that provides support and
protection for the backside of the spinal cord.

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• Transverse Processes (Where the pedicles and laminae unite).
• Spinous Process (where the two laminae meet).

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 Thoracic cage
• The bones of the thorax or thoracic cage are:
– 1 sternum
– 12 pairs of ribs
– 12 thoracic vertebrae.

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 Sternum or breast bone
• This flat bone can be felt just
under the skin in the middle of the
front of the chest.
– The Manubrium is the uppermost
section and articulates with the
clavicles at the sternoclavicular
joints and with the first two pairs of
ribs.
– The body or middle portion gives
attachment to the ribs.
– The xiphoid process is the tip of the
bone.

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 Ribs
• There are 12 pairs of ribs which form the bony lateral walls of the thoracic
cage and articulate posteriorly with the thoracic vertebrae.
• The first seven pairs of ribs have a direct anteriorly attached to the sternum
hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage. These ribs are called true ribs. The
remaining five pairs of ribs are termed false ribs because their costal
cartilages either attach indirectly to the sternum or do not attach to the
sternum at all.
• The cartilages of the 8th, 9th, and 10th pairs of ribs attach to each other
and then to the cartilages of the seventh pair of ribs. The eleventh and
twelfth false ribs are also known as floating ribs because the costal
cartilage at their anterior ends does not attach to the sternum at all. Floating
ribs attach only posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae. Spaces between
ribs, called intercostal spaces, are occupied by intercostal muscles, blood
vessels, and nerves.
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 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
• The appendicular skeleton
consists of,
– The shoulder girdle.
– with the upper limbs and,
– The pelvic girdle.
– with the lower limbs.

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 Shoulder girdle and upper limb
• Each shoulder girdle consists of:
– 1 clavicle
– 1 scapula

• Each upper limb consists of the following bones:

– 1 humerus
– 1 radius
– 1 ulna
– 8 carpal bones
– 5 metacarpal bones
– 14 phalanges.
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PECTORAL (SHOULDER)
GIRDLE
The pectoral girdles or shoulder girdles attach the bones of the
upper limbs to the axial skeleton . The right and left pectoral
girdles each consist of two bones:
a clavicle and a scapula.
The pectoral girdles do not articulate with the vertebral column.
The joints of the shoulder girdles are freely movable and thus
allow movements in many directions.

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Clavicle
Each clavicle or collar bone is a long, slender S-shaped bone that is
positioned horizontally above the first rib. The medial end of the clavicle
articulates with the sternum, and the lateral end articulates with the acromion
of the scapula
– It articulates with the Manubrium of the sternum at the
sternoclavicular joint.
– Forms the acromioclavicular joint with the Acromion Process of the
scapula.
Scapula
Each scapula or shoulder blade, is a large, flat, triangular bone situated in
the posterior part of the thorax.
Acromion Process forms the acromioclavicular joint with the clavicle.
Inferior to the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity. This cavity
articulates with the head of the humerus (arm bone) to form the shoulder
joint. Also present on the scapula is a projection called the coracoid process
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to which muscles attach.
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• Humerus.
– The head articulates with the
Glenoid Cavity ( shallow
depression on a bone into
which another bone fits to
form a joint) of the scapula,
forming the shoulder joint.
– The distal end of the bone
presents two surfaces that
articulate with the radius
and ulna to form the elbow
joint.

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• Ulna and radius.
– They articulate with,
• the Humerus at the
elbow joint,
• the carpal bones at
the wrist joint
and
• with each other at
the proximal and
distal radioulnar
joints.

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• Carpal or wrist bones.
– There are eight carpal
bones arranged in two
rows of four.
– From outside inwards
they are:
• proximal row: scaphoid,
lunate, triquetral, pisiform
• distal row: trapezium,
trapezoid, capitate,
hamate.

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• Metacarpal bones or
the bones of the
hand.
– Bones of palm.
– The proximal ends
articulate with the carpal
bones and the distal ends
with the phalanges.

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• Phalanges or finger
bones.
– There are 14 phalanges,
three in each finger and
two in the thumb.
– They articulate with,
• the metacarpal bones
and
• with each other.

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 Pelvic girdle and lower limb
• The bones of the pelvic girdle are:
– 2 innominate bones.
– 1 sacrum.
• The bones of the lower limb are:
– 1 femur. – 7 tarsal bones.
– 1 tibia. – 5 metatarsal bones.
– 1 fibula. – 14 phalanges.
– 1 patella.

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The pelvic (hip) girdle consists of the two hip bones, also
called coxal bones, or innominate bone or pelvic bone.
The pelvic girdle provides a strong, stable support for the
vertebral column, protects the pelvic viscera, and attaches the
lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
The hip bones are united to each other in front at a joint
called the pubic symphysis; posteriorly they unite with the
sacrum at the sacroiliac joint. Together with the sacrum and
coccyx, the two hip bones of the pelvic girdle form a basin
like structure called the pelvis.

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• Hip bones
– the bone formed from
the fusion of the ilium,
ischium, and pubis.
• ilium,
• Pubis and
• ischium
– On its outer surface there
is a deep depression, the
acetabulum, which forms
the hip joint with the
almost-spherical head of
femur.

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• Femur or thigh bone.
– The longest and strongest
bone of the body.
– The head is almost spherical
and fits into the
acetabulum of the hip bone
to form the hip joint.

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• Tibia / Fibula.
– Proximal and distal articulation
with each other.
– Tibia and fibula articulates with
knee bones.

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• Patella or knee cap.

Patella
The patella or kneecap, is a
small, triangular bone in front
of the joint between the femur
and tibia, commonly known as
the knee joint.
The patella develops in the
tendon of the quadriceps
femoris muscle.

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Quadriceps femoris, consist of
following muscles in different colors.
rectus femoris - blue
vastus lateralis - yellow
vastus intermedius - green
vastus medialis - red

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• Tarsal or ankle bones.
– There are seven tarsal bones
which form the posterior part of
the foot.
– They are:
• 1 talus
• 1 calcaneus
• 1 navicular
• 3 cuneiform
• 1 cuboid

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• Metatarsal bones of the foot.
– five bones.
– At their proximal ends they articulate
with the tarsal bones and at their distal
ends, with the phalanges.
• Phalanges of the toes.
– There are 14 phalanges arranged in a
similar manner to those in the fingers.

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 JOINTS
Bones are too rigid to bend without being damaged.
Fortunately, flexible connective tissues form joints that hold
bones together while in most cases permitting some degree
of movement.
Joints are the areas where 2 or more bones meet.
Most joints are mobile, allowing the bones to move.
A joint (also called an articulation) is a point of contact
between bones, between cartilage and bones, or between
teeth and bones. When we say one bone articulates with
another bone, we mean that the two bones form a joint.
Arthrology arthr- joint; -logy study of) is the scientific
study of joints. Many joints of the body permit movement.
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The structural classification of joints is based on two criteria:
(1) the presence or absence of a space between the articulating
bones, called a synovial cavity, and (2) the type of connective
tissue that holds the bones together. Structurally, joints are
classified as one of the following types:
■ Fibrous joints: There is no synovial cavity and the bones are
held together by dense irregular connective tissue that is rich in
collagen fibers.
■ Cartilaginous joints: There is no synovial cavity and the
bones are held together by cartilage.
■ Synovial joints: The bones forming the joint have a synovial
cavity and are united by the dense irregular connective tissue of
an articular capsule, and often by accessory ligaments.

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• TYPES OF JOINT:
– Fibrous or fixed joints.
• e.g.
– Joints between the bones of the skull (sutures)
– Between the teeth and the maxilla and mandible.

– Cartilaginous or slightly movable joints.

• e.g.
– Symphysis pubis and the joints between the vertebral bodies.

– Synovial or freely movable joints.

• e.g.
– Shoulder joint.
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 Cartilage
• Cartilage is a much firmer tissue than any of the other connective
tissues; consists of a dense network of collagen fibers or elastic fibers
• Cartilage. This is a type of tissue that covers the surface of a bone at a joint.
Cartilage helps reduce the friction of movement within a joint.
• The cells are called chondrocytes
• There are three types:
– hyaline cartilage
– fibrocartilage
– elastic fibrocartilage.

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Cartilage
The cells of mature cartilage, called chondrocytes chondro-
cartilage), occur singly or in groups within spaces called lacunae in
the extracellular matrix. The surface of most cartilage is surrounded
by a membrane of dense irregular connective tissue called the
perichondrium peri- around).
Unlike other connective tissues, cartilage has no blood vessels or
nerves, except in the perichondrium. Cartilage does not have a blood
supply because it secretes an antiangiogenesis factor anti against;
angio vessel; genesis production), a substance that prevents blood
vessel growth.
Diff between bone and cartilage

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 Tendon
• A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually
connects muscle to bone.
• A tendon is composed of dense fibrous connective tissue made up
of collagenous fibres.
• Primary collagen fibres, consist of bunches of collagen fibrils, are the basic
units of a tendon. Primary fibres are bunched together into primary fibre
bundles (subfasicles), groups of which form secondary fibre bundles
(fasicles).
• Multiple secondary fibre bundles form tertiary fibre bundles, groups of
which in turn form the tendon unit. Primary, secondary, and tertiary bundles
are surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue known as endotenon,
which facilitates the gliding of bundles against one another during tendon
movement.
• Endotenon is contiguous with epitenon, the fine layer of connective tissue
that sheaths the tendon unit.
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 Tendon (TEN-don) A white fibrous cord of
dense regular connective tissue that attaches
muscle to bone.

Tendons. Tendons (another type of tough

connective tissue) on each side of a joint attach
to muscles that control movement of the joint.
Tendons connect muscles to bones.
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 Ligament
• Ligaments connect bones to other bones to form a joint.
• Have an analogous structure to that of tendon.
• However they are thinner and contain higher proportion of elastin.
• Ligaments. Strong ligaments (tough, elastic bands of connective tissue)
surround the joint to give support and limit the joint's movement. Ligaments
connect bones together.

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cracking noises, the sound is coming from the
compression of nitrogen bubbles that naturally
occur in the spaces of the joints.
cracking noises could just be gas bubbles
bursting within the fluid surrounding the joint,
or the sound of ligaments and tendons
stretching and releasing. ... A soft snapping or
clicking sound is also sometimes caused by a
tight muscle or tendon moving over a bony
structure.
Hunch back, also known as Kyphosis,
is a severe curvature of the spine

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Take-home message

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 END OF TOPIC
BOOKS: GERRARD J. TORTORA