PL/SQL

Introduction
 PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language/Structured Query
language.
 The PL/SQL programming language was developed by
Oracle Corporation in the late 1980s as procedural
extension language for SQL.
 It is the superset of the SQL.
 Because it is procedural language it removes many
restrictions of SQL language.
Disadvantage of SQL
 SQL don’t have procedural capabilities like condition
checking, looping, and branching.
 SQL can only manipulate the information stored into
database.

 To overcome the disadvantage of SQL , PL/SQL came

into existence.
Features of PL/SQL
 PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to
the database at one time.
 This reduces network traffic and provides high performance for
the applications.
 PL/SQL give high productivity to programmers as it can
query, transform, and update data in a database.
Difference between PL/SQL and SQL
SQL PL/SQL
1. SQL does not have procedural 1. PL/SQL has all procedural
capabilities i.e. There is no capabilities.
provision of conditional 2. It sends the block of SQL
checking, looping and statements in one go, which
branching. results in increase of speed of
2. SQL statements are passed to processing.
oracle engine one at a time.
Hence leads to slow
processing.
3. It allows programmer to
3. There is no provision of display user-friendly error
handling errors and exception messages.
4. We cannot store the 4. We can store the immediate
immediate results of queries. results of query in variables.
Architecture of PL/SQL execution
PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE
DECLARE (optional)
- variable declarations
BEGIN (required)
- SQL statements
- PL/SQL statements or sub-blocks
EXCEPTION (optional)
- actions to perform when errors occur
END; (required)
Fundamentals of PL/SQL
 Character set
 Operators
 Literals
 Comments
 Variables and constants
 Data types
 Declarations
 Assignments
Character set
 Upper and lower case letters: A-Z, a-z
 Numerals: 0-9
 Symbols: ( ) , . < > ? / : ;’ “ { } [ ] !@#$%^&_+=-
 Tabs and space
PL/SQL Operators: Arithmetic operators

Operat
Description Example(A=10, B=5)
or

+ Adds two operands A + B will give 15

Subtracts second operand

- A - B will give 5
from the first

* Multiply both operands A * B will give 50

Divide numerator by de-

/ A / B will give 2
numerator
Exponentiation operator,
A ** B will give
** raises one operand to the
100000
power of other
Comparison Operators

Operator Description Example

Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if yes

= (A = B) is not true.
then condition becomes true.

!=
Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if
<> (A != B) is true.
values are not equal then condition becomes true.
~=

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the

> value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes (A > B) is not true.
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value

< (A < B) is true.
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or

>= equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition (A >= B) is not true.
becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal

<= to the value of right operand, if yes then condition (A <= B) is true.
becomes true.
 Additional Comparison Operators

Operato
Description Example
r

The LIKE operator compares a character, If 'Zara Ali' like 'Z% A_i'
string, or CLOB value to a pattern and returns a Boolean true,
LIKE
returns TRUE if the value matches the whereas, 'Nuha Ali' like 'Z%
pattern and FALSE if it does not. A_i' returns a Boolean false.

If x = 10 then, x between 5
The BETWEEN operator tests whether a and 20 returns true, x
BETWEE
value lies in a specified range. x BETWEEN between 5 and 10 returns
N
a AND b means that x >= a and x <= b. true, but x between 11 and 20
returns false.

If x = 'm' then, x in ('a', 'b', 'c')

The IN operator tests set membership. x IN
returns boolean false but x in
IN (set) means that x is equal to any member
('m', 'n', 'o') returns Boolean
of set.
true.

The IS NULL operator returns the BOOLEAN

value TRUE if its operand is NULL or FALSE If x = 'm', then 'x is null'
Logical Operators

Opera
Description Example
tor

Called logical AND operator. If both the

and operands are true then condition (A and B) is false.
becomes true.

Called logical OR Operator. If any of the

or two operands is true then condition (A or B) is true.
becomes true.

Called logical NOT Operator. Used to

reverse the logical state of its operand. If
not not (A and B) is true.
a condition is true then Logical NOT
operator will make it false.
 The PL/SQL Literals
Literal Type Example:

050 78 -14 0 +32767

Numeric
6.6667 0.0 -12.0 3.14159 +7800.00
Literals
6E5 1.0E-8 3.14159e0 -1E38 -9.5e-3

Character
'A' '%' '9' ' ' 'z' '('
Literals

'Hello, world!'
String Literals
'19-NOV-12'

BOOLEAN
TRUE, FALSE, and NULL.
Literals

Date and DATE '1978-12-25';

Time Literals TIMESTAMP '2012-10-29 12:01:01';
PL/SQL Variable Types
 Its a named variable which is used to hold some data
value.
 variable-name datatype(size);

DECLARE
a number := 10;
b number := 20;
c number;
Declaring a Constant
 A constant variable cannot be changed throughout the
program.

DECLARE
PI CONSTANT NUMBER := 3.14 -- constant declaration
Data types
 Number- integers and floating point number.
 Char: alphanumeric up to 32767 bytes
 Varchar: variable length alphanumeric
 Date: date and time
 Boolean: true, false or null
Declaration
 Variable declaration
 variable-name datatype(size);
 Constant declaration
 variable-name CONSTANT datatype(size) := value;
Assignment
1. Using assignment operator (:=)
 A :=10;
 Sum := A+B+C;

2. Get value from data base object. Using “SELECT INTO”

clause
 Select salary into SAL from employee where empid=12;
PL/SQL is strongly typed
 All variables must be declared before their use.
 The assignment statement

:=
is not the same as the equality operator
=
 All statements end with a ;
PL/SQL Comments
 Single line comment
 A:=5; -- assign value 5 to variable A.

 Multi-line comments
 A:=b+c; /* the value of variable A and B are added and
assign to variable A */
Important PL/SQL delimiters
+, -, *, / arithmetic operators
; statement terminator
:= assignment operator
=> association operator
|| strings concatenation operator
. component indicator
% attribute operator
‘ character string delimiter
-- single line comment
/*, */ multi line comment delimiters
.. range operator
=, >, >=, <, <= relational operators
!=, ~=, ^=, <> not equal relational operators
is null, like, between PL/SQL relational operators
To display user message on the screen
 SQL> Set Serveroutput ON;

 dbms_output.put_line(A);
 dbms_output.put_line(‘Value of A is:’ || A);
 || is concatenation operator
Read a value during runtime
 Num:= :num;

 This will produce a message on screen

 Enter the value of NUM:
 User can enter any value at run time to NUM.
Example Program: to display message
DECLARE
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(‘Welcome to Programming world’);
END;
Quiz
 PL/SQL is a ________ of SQL

A) Subset
B) Superset
C) Powerset
D) None of these
Quiz
 A PL/SQL statement is terminated with

A) End statement
B) Stop Statement
C) Break Statement
D) None of these
Quiz
 Which of the following is the assignment operator in
Oracle

A) =
B) :=
C) ==
D) None of these
To add two numbers
Declare
a number(2);
b number (2);
c number(2);
Begin
a:=5;
b:=2;
c:=a+b;
dbms_output.put_line(‘sum=‘ || c);
End;
To add two numbers (get values from
user)
Declare
a number(2);
b number (2);
c number(2);
Begin
a:=:a;
b:=:b;
c:=a+b;
dbms_output.put_line(‘sum=‘ || c);
End;
Create a ‘sty’ table with following parameters:
Select Marks and name from ‘sty’ table and also update ‘sty’ table

declare
a int;
n varchar(20);
begin
select marks,name into a,n from sty where id=3;
dbms_output.put_line(a ||' '||n);
update sty set marks=a+7 where id=3;
dbms_output.put_line(a);
end;
emp table
Emp_name Emp_id TA DA Total Branch_City
abc 10 1200 1345 2545 Delhi
xyz 12 1100 1200 2300 Mumbai
calculate total amount(ta+da) of an
employee, also update the emp table
PL/SQL code to calculate total amount(ta+da)
of an employee, also update the emp table
Declare
a number(5);
b number(5);
t number(5);
Begin
select ta, da into a, b from emp where empid=12;
t:=a+b;
update emp set total =t where empid=12;
end;
Variable attributes
 %type
 %rowtype
%TYPE
 Provide the data type of a variable or column.

 Exp:
 sal employee.salary%TYPE;
declare
a sty.marks%type;
n sty.name%type;
begin
select marks,name into a,n from sty where id=2;
dbms_output.put_line(a ||' '||n);
end;
Declare
a emp.ta%TYPE;
b emp.td%TYPE;
t emp.total%TYPE;
Begin
Select ta, da into a, b from emp where emp_id=12;
t=a+d;
Update emp set total =t where empid=12;
End;
%ROWTYPE
 It provides a record type that represents a row in a table.
One variable to access the complete row of the table.

 Eg:
 dept_rec dept%ROWTYPE; -- declaring record variable.
detp_rec.deptno;
dept_rec.deptname; -- accessing columns

i.e. recordname.colname

 %ROWTYPE has all properties of %TYPE and one additional that we

required only one variable to access any number of columns.
declare
t sty%rowtype;
begin
select * into t from sty where id=1;
dbms_output.put_line(t.name ||' '||t.id||' '||t.marks);
end;
emp table

Emp_name Emp_id TA DA Total Branch_Cit

y
abc 10 1200 1345 2545 Delhi
xyz 12 1100 1200 2300 Mumbai
Declare
record2 emp%ROWTYPE;
Begin
Select * into record2 from emp where empid=12;

record2.total=record2.ta+record2.da;

Update emp set total=record2.total where empid=12;

End;
QUIZ
 Which of the following is optional in PL/SQL
A) Begin
B) Declare
C) Exception
D) Both B and C
Control statements
 Conditional / selection control
 Iterative control
 Sequence control
Conditional / selection
 IF condition Then
Sequence of statements;
End if;

 IF condition then
Sequence of statements;
Else
Sequence of statements;
End if;

 IF condition1 then
Sequence of statements;
Elsif condition2 then
Sequence of statements;
Else
Sequence of statements;
End if;
To find largest of two numbers
Declare
num1 number(2);
num2 number(2);
Begin
num1 := :num1;
num2 := :num2;
If num1>num2 then
dbms_output.put_line(‘greater number is =‘ || num1);
Else
dbms_output.put_line(‘greater number is =‘ || num2);
End if
End;
Even or odd number
declare
n number:=:n;

begin
if mod(n,2)=0
then
dbms_output.put_line('number is even');
else
dbms_output.put_line('number is odd');
end if;
end;
 To find largest of three numbers(nested if)
 To display the grade of students according to marks(elsif).
To find largest of three numbers(nested if)
declare
a number:=10;
b number:=12;
c number:=5;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('a='||a||' b='||b||' c='||c);
if a>b AND a>c
then
dbms_output.put_line('a is greatest');
else
if b>a AND b>c
then
dbms_output.put_line('b is greatest');
else
dbms_output.put_line('c is greatest');
end if;
end if;
end;
QUIZ

Which of the following is true about comments in PL/SQL?

A) Comments are explanatory statements.
B) The PL/SQL single-line comments start with the delimiter
- - (double hyphen)
C) Multi-line comments are enclosed by /* and */.
D) All of the above.
 QUIZ

Which of the following is true about the execution section of

a PL/SQL block?

A - It is enclosed between the keywords BEGIN and END.

B - It is a mandatory section.

C - It consists of the executable PL/SQL statements.

D - All of the above.

QUIZ

Which of the following is true about comments in PL/SQL?

A) Comments are explanatory statements.
B) The PL/SQL single-line comments start with the delimiter
- - (double hyphen)
C) Multi-line comments are enclosed by /* and */.
D) All of the above.
 QUIZ
To get the server output result and display it into
the screen, you need to write −
A - set serveroutput on
B - set server output on
C - set dbmsoutput on
D - set dbms output on
Iterative control
Sequence of statements can be executed number of times
 Loop
 While – loop
 For-loop
Loop
Simple loop (Infinite loop)
Loop
Sequence of statements;
Exit when condition;
End loop;

 Two forms of exit

 exit
 Exit to exit immediately
 Exit when
 To exit on condition
To print numbers 1 to 10
Declare
i number(2);
Begin
i:=1;
Loop
dbms_output.put_line(i);
i := i+1;
Exit when i>10;
End loop;
End;
while
Statements are executed when condition is true

While condition
Loop
Sequence of statements;
updation;
End loop;
To print Square of number from 1 to 10
Declare
a number(2);
Begin
a:=1;
While a<=10;
Loop
Dbms_output.put_line(a*a);
a:=a+1;
End loop;
End;
To print multiplication table
Declare
table number := &table;
count number:=1;
result number;
Begin
While count<=10
Loop
result := table*count;
Dbms_output.put_line (table|| ‘*’ || count ||‘=’|| result);
count:=count+1;
End loop;
End;
For loop

FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lower bound..higher bound

Loop
Sequence of statements;
End loop;
Declare
total number(4);
i number(2);
Begin
For i in 1..10
Loop
total := 2*i;
Dbms_output.put_line(‘2*’||i||’=‘||total);
End loop;
End;
Reverse loop
FOR i IN REVERSE 1..10
Loop
Dbms_output.put_line(i); -- prints 10 to 1
End loop
To calculate the factorial of given number
Declare
num number(2);
i number(2);
fact number(4);
Begin
fact := 1;
num := &num;
For i in 1..num
Loop
fact := fact * i;
End loop;
Dbms_output.put_line(fact);
End;
 QUIZ
Which of the following statements can be used
to terminate a PL/SQL loop?

A. GOTO
B. EXIT WHEN
C. CONTINUE WHEN
D. KILL
 Quiz

Which of the following is not true about PL/SQL decision

making structures?
A)The IF statement associates a condition with a sequence of
statements enclosed by THEN and END IF.
B)The IF statement also adds the keyword ELSE followed by
an alternative sequence of statement.
C)The IF-THEN-ELSIF statement allows you to choose
between several alternatives.
D)PL/SQL does not have a CASE statement
Sequence control
To transfer the flow using goto statement

Goto lablename;

Label is marked using tag

<<labelname>>
goto
Declare
num1 number(2);
Num2 number(2);
Begin
num1:=:num1;
num2:=:num2;
If num1> num2 then
Goto p1;
Else
Goto p2;
End if;
<<p1>>
Dbms_output.put_line(‘num1 is bigger’);
goto p3;
<<p2>>
Dbms_output.put_line(‘num2 is bigger’);
<<p3>>
null;
End;
 TRIGGERS
TRIGGERS are stored programs that are fired by Oracle
engine automatically when DML Statements like insert,
update, delete are executed on the table or some events
occur. The code to be excecuted in case of a trigger can be
defined as per the requirement. You can choose the event
upon which the trigger needs to be fired and the timing of
the execution. The purpose of trigger is to maintain the
integrity of information on the database.
Triggers
 Stored procedures that automatically executed when some
event occurs on a particular table in data base.
 Events can be
 Insert
 Delete
 Update
Trigger vs procedures
 Triggers do not accept parameters.
 Triggers are executed automatically with user calling.
Need and uses of triggers
 Prevent changes
 Log changes
 Audit changes(log of users)
 Enhance changes
 Replicate data
 Enhance performance
Types of Triggers in Oracle
Triggers can be classified based on the following parameters.
•Classification based on the timing
•BEFORE Trigger: It fires before the specified event has occurred.
•AFTER Trigger: It fires after the specified event has occurred.
•INSTEAD OF Trigger: A special type. You will learn more about the further topics. (only
for DML )
•Classification based on the level
•STATEMENT level Trigger: It fires one time for the specified event statement.
•ROW level Trigger: It fires for each record that got affected in the specified event. (only
for DML)
•Classification based on the Event
•DML Trigger: It fires when the DML event is specified (INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE)
•DDL Trigger: It fires when the DDL event is specified (CREATE/ALTER)
•DATABASE Trigger: It fires when the database event is specified
(LOGON/LOGOFF/STARTUP/SHUTDOWN)
Parts of trigger
 Triggering event or statement
 insert, update or delete event
 Trigger restriction
 Is Boolean value true or false for trigger to fire.(when clause)
 Trigger action
 Code which is executed when event occurs
Types of triggers
 Row trigger
 Fired for each row effected by trigger statement.(once for each
row)
 Statement trigger
 Fired once for triggering statements regardless of number of
rows effected.
Another classification of triggers
 BEFORE trigger
 Trigger executes its trigger action before the triggering
statement
 AFTER trigger
 Trigger executes its trigger action after the triggering statement
Creating a trigger
Create or replace trigger tiggername
BEFORE/AFTER
DELETE/INSERT/UPDATE of column-name
On table
REFFERENCING OLD AS old, NEW AS new
For each row
When condition
Declare
Variable declarations;
Begin
Statements;
Exception
Error handling statements
End;
Create PL/SQL trigger which will tell about
the operation performed on database.
Create or replace trigger t1
Before INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE
ON Student
Begin
IF INSERTING then
Dbms_output.put_line(‘operation performed inserting’);
ELSIF UPDATING then
Dbms_output.put_line(‘operation performed Updating’);
ELSE
Dbms_output.put_line(‘operation performed Deletion’);
End if;
End;
Create PL/SQL trigger which will convert
the name of the student to uppercase before
inserting or updating the name column of
student database.
Create or replace trigger t12
Before INSERT or UPDATE of NAME
ON Student
For each row
Begin
:NEW.NAME := UPPER(:NEW.NAME);
End;
Create PL/SQL trigger which will delete the
detail of the employee from employee table
when particular branch is deleted from dept
Create or replace trigger t22
Before delete
On dept
For each row
Begin
Delete from employee where
branch_id= :OLD.branch_id;
End;
Dropping a trigger
 Drop trigger tiggername;

 Eg
Drop trigger t11