Network Reference Model

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 Foreword
 In the digital era, various information is presented as data in our life. What is data? How is data
transmitted?
 In this course, we will use the network reference model to understand the "life" of data.

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 Objectives
 On completion of this course, you will be able to:
 Understand the data definition and transmission process.
 Understand the concepts and advantages of the network reference model.
 Understand common standard protocols.
 Understand the data encapsulation and decapsulation processes.

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data
2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols
3. Data Communication Process

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 Origin of the Story - Applications
 Applications are used to meet various requirements of people, such as web page access, online
gaming, and online video playback.
 Information is generated along with applications. Texts, pictures, and videos are all information
presentation modes.

Application

Information

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 Application Implementation - Data
 Data generation
 In the computer field, data is the carrier of all kinds of information.
 Data transmission
 Data generated by most applications needs to be transmitted between devices.

Does an application
Data need to complete the
entire process from
Network data generation to data
transmission?

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data
2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols
3. Data Communication Process

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 OSI Reference Model

7. Application Layer Provides interfaces for applications.

Translates data formats to ensure that the application-layer data of one system can be
6. Presentation Layer identified by the application layer of another system.
5. Session Layer Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between communicating parties.
Establishes, maintains, and cancels an end-to-end data transmission process; controls
4. Transport Layer transmission speeds and adjusts data sequences.
3. Network Layer Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.
Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode, and
2. Data Link Layer implements error checking.
Transmits bitstreams over transmission media and defines electrical and physical
1. Physical Layer specifications.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 The OSI protocol stack is complex, and the TCP and IP protocols are widely used in the
industry. Therefore, the TCP/IP reference model becomes the mainstream reference model of the
Internet.

Application Layer

Application Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer

Session Layer

Host-to-Host Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer

Internet Layer Network Layer Network Layer

Network Access Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Standard TCP/IP model OSI model Equivalent TCP/IP model

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 Common TCP/IP Protocols
 The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a series of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application Layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport Layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network Layer
IP
PPPoE
Data Link Layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical Layer ...

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 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting Internet protocols (especially protocols that
constitute the TCP/IP protocol suite), and releasing new or replacing old protocol standards through RFCs.

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 IEEE has formulated about 30% of standards in the electronics, electrical, and computer science fields worldwide. Those
standards include well-known IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE802.11 (Wi-Fi).

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

 ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the formulation of computer network standards, such as the
OSI model defined in ISO/IEC 7498-1.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Application Layer
• The application layer provides interfaces for application software so that applications can use network services. The
application layer protocol designates transport layer protocols and ports.
• PDUs transmitted at the application layer are called data.

Application • HTTP 80 (TCP)

Layer Hypertext transfer protocol, which provides web browsing services.
(Data) • Telnet 23 (TCP)
Remote login protocol, which provides remote management services.
Transport Layer
• FTP 20 and 21 (TCP)
File transfer protocol, which provides Internet file resource sharing services.
Network Layer
• SMTP 25 (TCP)
Simple mail transfer protocol, which provides Internet email services.
Data Link Layer • TFTP 69 (UDP)
Simple file transfer protocol, which provides simple file transfer services.
Physical Layer

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - FTP

 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers files from one host to another to implement file download and
upload. This protocol adopts the client/server (C/S) structure.

FTP client FTP server

Network

FTP client: provides commands for local users to FTP server: a device that runs the FTP service. It
operate files on a remote server. A user can install an provides the access and operation functions for
FTP client program on a PC and set up a connection remote clients, allowing users to access the FTP
with an FTP server to operate files on the server. server through the FTP client program and access
files on the server.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - Telnet

 Telnet is a standard protocol that provides remote login services on a network. It provides users with the
ability to operate remote devices through local PCs.

Telnet server

Telnet connection A user connects to a Telnet server through

AP Router
the Telnet client program. The commands
Network entered on the Telnet client are executed on

Telnet client
SW Firewall
the server, as if the commands were
... entered on the console of the server.
Server

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - HTTP

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is one of the most widely used network protocols on the Internet.
HTTP was originally designed to provide a method for publishing and receiving HTML pages.

Network
HTTP client HTTP server

Visits www.huawei.com.

Returns the HTML file of the page.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Transport Layer
 A transport layer protocol receives data from an application layer protocol, encapsulates the data with the
corresponding transport layer protocol header, and helps establish an end-to-end (port-to-port)
connection.
 PDUs transmitted at the transport layer are called segments.

Application
Layer
Transport layer protocols:
Transport TCP: a connection-oriented reliable
Layer
protocol defined by IETF in RFC 793.
(Segment)
UDP: a simple connectionless protocol
Network Layer defined by IETF in RFC 768.

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Header Formats

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

Sequence Number (32)
Acknowledgement Number (32) TCP header
Header Reserved Control Window (16) 20 bytes
Length (4) (6) Bits (6)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options
Data (varies)

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

UDP header
Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Port Numbers

Web browser HTTP server

HTTP application Telnet HTTP application Telnet

TCP port 1024 TCP port 1231 TCP port 80 TCP port 23

House number: 1.1.1.1 (IP address) House number: 2.2.2.2 (IP address)

Network

HTTP client HTTP server

Source IP address: 1.1.1.1 Source port number: 1024 HTTP

Destination IP address: 2.2.2.2 Destination port number: 80 Payload

IP header TCP header

• Generally, the source port used by a client is randomly allocated, and the destination port is specified by the application of a
server.
• The system generally selects a source port number that is greater than 1023 and is not being used.
• The destination port number is the listening port of the application (service) enabled on the server. For example, the default port
number for HTTP is 80.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake

• Before sending data, a TCP-based application needs to establish a connection through three-way
handshake. PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23

IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a Ack=0

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: SYN is set.)

Seq=b Ack=a+1
Source = 2.2.2.2
(Flags: SYN is set, and ACK is
Destination=1.1.1.1
set.)

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Ack=b+1

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

A TCP connection is established.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical

TCP Sequence Number and Acknowledgment

Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Number
 TCP uses the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields to implement reliable and
ordered data transmission.

PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
1 A TCP connection is
2
3 established.
4
5
6 … IP header TCP header
… Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Payload
Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 12 bytes

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload

Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+1+12 Length =0 bytes

Data to be sent Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+13 Payload

Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 66 bytes Question: Why does the value
of the Acknowledgment
Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload Number field in the segment
Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+12+66 Length = 0 bytes sent by PC1 not increase?

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Window Sliding Mechanism

 TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the data transmission rate.

PC1 PC2

Buffer of the receiver

seq=100 win=3 flags=SYN
1
Three-way seq=200 Ack=101 win=3 flags=SYN,ACK
handshake
seq=101 Ack=201 win=3 flags=ACK

Data to be sent
2 seq=101 win=3

Data seq=102 win=3

transmission 3
seq=103 win=3

Question: Why does the

Ack=104 win=1 ctl=ACK 4 Window field of the
segment sent by PC1
seq=104 win=3 remain unchanged?
5

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake

 After data transmission is complete, TCP needs to use the four-way handshake mechanism to disconnect the TCP
connection and release system resources.
PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
A TCP connection is
established.
TCP segment
exchange
IP header TCP header

Sends a Seq=101 Ack=301

Source = 1.1.1.1
1 connection (Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is
Destination = 2.2.2.2
teardown request set.)
with FIN being
set. Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends ACK. 2
Destination = 1.1.1.1 (Flags: ACK is set.)

Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends a

Source = 2.2.2.2
(Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is connection 3
Destination = 1.1.1.1
set.) teardown
request with
Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=102 Ack=302 FIN being set.
4 Sends ACK.
Destination = 2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

The TCP connection is

torn down.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Network Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for establishing connections between processes on hosts, and the
network layer is responsible for transmitting data from one host to another.
 PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called packets.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer
• The network layer is also called the Internet layer.
Network It sends packets from source hosts to destination hosts.
Layer • Functions of the network layer:
(Packet) Provides logical addresses for network devices.
Routes and forwards data packets.
Data Link Layer Common network layer protocols include IPv4, IPv6,
ICMP, and IGMP.
Physical Layer

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol

Packet Encapsulation Packet Forwarding Based on Network Layer Addresses
Letter: data sent by an upper layer (for example, Router 1
the transport layer)
GE0/0/0

PC1 GE0/0/1

PC2

The PC encapsulates the IP header (envelope).

The key information is about source and
destination IP addresses. Network A

Routing table of Router 1 • The network layer header of a packet sent by a source device
carries the network layer addresses of the source and
Outbound destination devices.
Network
Interface • Each network device (such as a router) that has the routing
function maintains a routing table (like a map of the network
Network A GE0/0/1 device).
Envelope: IP packet header • After receiving a packet, the network device reads the
Sender: source IP address … … network layer destination address of the packet, searches the
Receiver: destination IP address routing table for the matching entry of the destination address,
and forwards the packet according to the instruction of the
… …
matching entry.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Data Link Layer

 The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer and provides services for
protocols such as IP and IPv6 at the network layer. PDUs transmitted at the data link layer are called
frames.
 Ethernet is the most common data link layer protocol.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer
The data link layer is located between the network layer and the
Network Layer physical layer.
• The data link layer provides intra-segment communication
Data Link
for the network layer.
Layer
• The functions of the data link layer include framing,
(Frame)
physical addressing, and error control.
Physical Layer • Common data link layer protocols include Ethernet,
PPPoE, and PPP.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses

Ethernet Definition Ethernet Source MAC Addresses

Switch A I have a MAC address

when I leave the Name: Host A
factory.
Switch B MAC address/Ethernet address/physical
address:
Host A Host B
Host A

Network A
Host C Host D • A media access control (MAC) address uniquely identifies a NIC
• Ethernet is a broadcast multiple access protocol that works at on a network. Each NIC requires and has a unique MAC address.
• MAC addresses are used to locate specific physical devices in an
the data link layer protocol.
• The network interfaces of PCs comply with the Ethernet IP network segment.
• A device that works at the data link layer, such as an Ethernet
standard.
• Generally, a broadcast domain corresponds to an IP network switch, maintains a MAC address table to guide data frame
segment. forwarding.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
 Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

ARP request
Destination IP address: 192.168.1.2
Destination MAC address: ?
Host A Host B
192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24
3C-52-82-49-7E-9D ARP reply 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Source IP address: 192.168.1.2
Source MAC address: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (1)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2:192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP
entry.
1

Host 2 sends an ARP Step 1:

reply.
Host 1>arp -a • Before sending a datagram, a device searches its ARP
Internet Address Physical Address Type table for the destination MAC address of the
Host 1 adds an ARP datagram.
entry.
• If the destination MAC address exists in the ARP
table, the device encapsulates the MAC address in
The ARP cache table the frame and sends out the frame. If the destination
is empty. MAC address does not exist in the ARP table, the
device sends an ARP request to discover the MAC
address.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (2)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
3 GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2:48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.

Step 2:
Host 2 sends an ARP • Host 1 sends an ARP request to discover the
2
reply. Eth_II ARP Request FCS MAC address of Host 2.
• The destination MAC address in the ARP request
is 0 because the destination MAC address is
Host 1 adds an ARP entry.
unknown.
Destination MAC
address: Operation type: ARP request
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF MAC address of the sender: MAC 1
Source MAC address: IP address of the sender: IP 1 Step 3:
MAC 1 Destination MAC address: 00-00-00-00-00-00 • The ARP request message is a broadcast data
Destination IP address: IP 2 frame. After receiving the ARP request message,
the switch floods it.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (3)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP
entry.
4
Step 4:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. • After receiving the ARP request message, each host checks Host 2>arp -a
whether it is the destination of the message based on the carried Internet Address Physical Address Type
destination IP address. 192.168.1.1 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D Dynamic
Host 1 adds an ARP
• Host 2 finds that it is the destination of the message and then
entry.
records the mapping between the sender's MAC and IP
addresses in its ARP table.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (4)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries. 6
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP
entry.
Step 5: 5
Host 2 sends an ARP • Host 2 sends an ARP reply to Host 1.
reply. • In this step, Host 2 has discovered the MAC address of Host 1, so Eth_II ARP Reply FCS
the ARP reply is a unicast data frame.
Host 1 adds an ARP
entry. Destination MAC
address: MAC-1 Operation type: ARP reply
Step 6: Source MAC address: Sender's MAC address: MAC 2
MAC 2 Sender's IP address: IP 2
• After receiving the unicast data frame, the switch forwards the
Receiver's MAC address: MAC 1
frame.
Receiver's IP address: IP 1

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (5)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
7
Step 7:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. Host 1>arp -a • After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1 checks
Internet Address Physical Address Type whether it is the destination of the message based on the
192.168.1.2 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F Dynamic carried destination IP address.
Host 1 adds an ARP
• If so, Host 1 records the carried sender's MAC and IP
entry.
addresses in its ARP table.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Physical Layer
 After data arrives at the physical layer, the physical layer converts a digital signal into an optical signal, an electrical
signal, or an electromagnetic wave signal based on the physical media.
 PDUs transmitted at the physical layer are called bitstreams.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

The physical layer is at the bottom of the model.

Data Link Layer • This layer transmits bitstreams on media.
• It standardizes physical features such as cables, pins, voltages,
Physical Layer and interfaces.
(Bitstream) • Common transmission media include twisted pairs, optical
fibers, and electromagnetic waves.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Transmission Media

Fiber Optical module

Twisted pair RJ45 connector

Data transmission through twisted pairs Data transmission through optical fibers
1 2

3 4

Synchronous/asynchronous
serial cable: V.24 on the left and
V.35 on the right PAD Mobile phone Laptop Wireless router

Data transmission between terminal and wireless

Data transmission through serial cables routers through wireless signals

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data
2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols
3. Data Communication Process

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 Data Encapsulation on the Sender

DATA Application Layer Data

www.huawei.com

TCP Header DATA Transport Layer Segment

Network Layer Packet

IP Header Payload

Data Link Layer Frame

Eth Header Payload FCS

... Physical Layer Bit

Transmission
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Media Transmission Media
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 Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network
 Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.
Data

Data

Application Application
Layer Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer Network Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

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 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver

Application Layer DATA Data

Web server

Transport Layer DATA Segment

e ad e r
TCP H

Network Layer Payload Packet

er
IP Head

Data Link Layer Payload FCS Frame

a de r
Eth He

Physical Layer …… Bit

Transmission 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Media

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 Summary
 Both the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model adopt the layered design concept.
 Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the development, design, and
troubleshooting of each component.
 The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.
 Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and software on various
networks, improving compatibility.
 Data generation and transmission require collaboration between modules. Meanwhile, each
module must fulfill its own responsibilities.

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 Quiz
1. What are the benefits of the layered model?
2. What are the common protocols at the application layer, transport layer, network layer, and data link
layer?

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 Thank You
www.huawei.com

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