CHAPTER ONE

AI INTRODUCTION

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 Objective
 To understand AI and related concept (Knowledge base and
intelligent system)
 Understand the components of AI system
 Get a feel of application areas of AI
 Get a feel of scholars view to define AI
 Briefly discuss the difference between Expert system and other
systems

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DATA, INFORMATION, AND
KNOWLEDGE
• What is Data and Information? Are they different
from Knowledge?
 Data: Unorganized and unprocessed
facts; static; a set of discrete facts
about events
 Information: Aggregation of data
that makes decision making easier
 Knowledge is derived from
information in the same way
information is derived from data; it is
a person’s range of information

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WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE
 Knowledge includes facts about the real world entities
and the relationship between them
 Itis an Understanding gained through experience
 familiarity with the way to perform a task
 an accumulation of facts, procedural rules, or heuristics

 Characteristics of Knowledge:
 Itis voluminous in nature and requires proper structuring.
 It may be incomplete and imprecise.
 It may keep on changing (dynamic).

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TYPES (CATEGORIZATION) OF
KNOWLEDGE
(readily recalled) and deep (acquired through years
 Shallow

of experience)
necessary to make decision/solve problem in complex situations

(repetitive, stepwise) versus Episodically

 Procedural

(grouped by episodes or cases)

(already represented/documented) and tacit

 Explicit

(embedded in the mind)

Up to 95% of information is preserved as tacit knowledge
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 EXPLICIT AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

 Explicit
(knowing-that)
knowledge:
 knowledge codified and digitized
in books, documents, reports,
memos, etc.

 Tacit
(knowing-how)
knowledge:
 knowledgeembedded in the
human mind through experience 6
and jobs
KNOWLEDGE BASE
 Knowledge-based systems: A knowledge-based system can be
defined as "an intelligent computer program that uses knowledge
and inference procedures to solve problems that are difficult
enough to require significant human expertise for their solutions.
 Knowledge base is used to store facts and rules.
 In order to solve problems, the computer needs an internal model
of the world.
 This model contains, for example, the description of relevant
objects and the relations between these objects.
 All information must be stored in such a way that it is readily
accessible.
 Various methods have been used for KB, such as logic,
semantic networks, frames, scripts, etc...
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KNOWLEDGE BASE SYSTEMS (KBSS)
 Deal with treating knowledge and ideas on a computer.
 Emphases to the importance of knowledge.
 Use inference to solve problems on a computer.
 Knowledge-based systems describes programs that reason over
extensive knowledge bases.
 Have the ability to learn ideas so that they can obtain
information from outside to use it appropriately.
 The value of the system lies in its ability to make the workings
of the human mind understandable and executable on a
computer.
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AI VS. KBS
 Knowledge based system is part of Artificial Intelligence
 AI also requires extensive knowledge of the subject at hand.
 AI program should have knowledge base
 Knowledge representation is one of the most important and most
active areas in AI.
 AI programs should be learning in nature and update its knowledge
accordingly.

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INTELLIGENCE
 Intelligence is the capability of observing, learning,
remembering and reasoning.
 Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves the ability to
reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and
language, and learn.
 Intelligence draws on a variety of mental processes,
including memory, learning, perception, decision-making,
thinking, and reasoning.
 Memory of Intelligent system is used to store knowledge
base which is the key for success for artificial intelligent
systems.
 AI attempts to develop intelligent agents.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLIGENT
SYSTEM

 Use vast amount of knowledge

 Learn from experience and adopt to changing
environment
 Interact with human using language and speech

 Respond in real time

 Tolerate error and ambiguity in communication

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 HUMAN INTELLIGENCE
How do people Reason?
 They create categories
 They use specific rules
– if ‘a’ then ’b’
if ‘b’ then ‘c’
abc
 They use Heuristics - “Rule of thumb”
 They use Past Experience – “CASES”
- Similarities of current and previous case
- Store cases using key attributes
 They Use “Expectations”
 How does our brain work when we solve a problem?
 Do we think it over and suddenly find an answer?
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 What do we do when solving a complicated factorization problem, a
puzzle or a mystery?
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
• AI is the branch of Computer Science that deals
with ways of:
– representing knowledge using symbol rather than
numeric value and with rule-of-thumb and method
of processing information

• AI is the effort to develop computer based system

that behave as human.
–Such system should be able to learn Natural

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Language.
–Able to do text processing, communicate in natural
language and speech
VIEWS OF AI
 AI is found on the premise that:
 workings of human mind can be explained in terms of
computation, and
 computers can do the right thing given correct premises and
reasoning rules.

Views of AI fall into four categories:

Thinking humanly Thinking rationally

Acting humanly Acting rationally

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VIEWS OF DEFINING AI
 What is AI (Artificial Intelligence)
 Different scholars define AI differently

(A) AI as a system (B) AI as a system

that think humanly that think rationally

Concerned with Concerned with

thought processing behaviors of agents
and reasoning

(C) AI as a system (D) AI as a system 16

that Act humanly that Act rationally
VIEWS OF DEFINING AI
measures success of AI in
terms of human being
performance

(A) AI as a system (C) AI as a system

that think humanly that Act humanly

measures success of AI in terms of

ideal concept of intelligence
(rationality)

(B) AI as a system (D) AI as a system

that think rationally that Act rationally
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 THINKING HUMANLY: THE COGNITIVE
MODELING
Reasons like humans do
 Programs that behave like humans

Requires understanding of the internal activities of the

brain
 seehow humans behave in certain situations and see if you could make
computers behave in that same way.
Example. write a program that plays chess.
 Instead
of making the best possible chess-playing program, you would
make one that play chess like people do.

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ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING
TEST
Can machines act like human do? Can machines
behave intelligently?
 Turing Test: Operational test for intelligent behavior
 do experiments on the ability to achieve human-level
performance,
 Acting like humans requires AI programs to interact with
people
 Suggested major components of AI: knowledge,
reasoning, language understanding, learning

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 ACTING HUMANLY: TURING TEST
 Turing (1950) on his famous paper "Computing machinery and
intelligence":
 "Can machines think?"  "Can machines behave intelligently?"
 Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance

of fooling a person for 5 minutes
Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50
years
Active areas of research to achieve this: Machine learning, 20

NLP, Computer vision, etc

THINKING RATIONALLY: THE LAWS OF
THOUGHT
 A system is rational if it thinks/does the right thing
through correct reasoning.

 Aristotle: provided the correct arguments/ thought

structures that always gave correct conclusions given
correct premises.
Abebe is a man; all men are mortal; therefore Abebe is mortal
These Laws of thought governed the operation of the mind
and initiated the field of Logic.

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ACTING RATIONALLY: THE
RATIONAL AGENT

 Doing the right thing so as to achieve one’s goal,

given one’s beliefs.
 AI is the study and construction of rational agents (an
agent that perceives and acts)
 Rational action requires the ability to represent
knowledge and reason with it so as to reach good
decision.
 Learning for better understanding of how the world works

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HISTORY OF AI

Formally initiated in 1956 and the name AI was coined by

John McCarthy.
Read and make your own note on foundation of AI(page 5-
16)
The advent of general purpose computers provided a vehicle
for creating artificially intelligent entities.
Used for solving general-purpose problems
Which one is preferred?
Generalpurpose problem solving systems
Domain specific systems

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HISTORY OF AI
 Development of knowledge-based systems: the
key to power
 Performance of general-purpose problem solving
methods is weak for many complex domains.
 Use knowledge more suited to make better reasoning
in narrow areas of expertise (like human experts do).
 Early knowledge intensive systems include:
 The Dendral program (1969): solved the problem of
inferring molecular structure (C6H13NO2).
 MYCIN (1976): used for medical diagnosis.

 etc.

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HISTORY OF AI
 Shifts
from procedural to declarative
programming paradigm.
 Rather than telling the computer how to compute a
solution, a program consists of a knowledge base of
facts and relationships.
 Rather than running a program to obtain a solution,
the user asks question so that the system searches
through the KB to determine the answer.
 Simulatehuman mind and learning behavior
(Neural Network, Belief Network, Hidden
Markov Models, etc. )
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APPLICATIONS OF AI AND KBS
Solving problems that required thinking by humans:
Playing games (chess, checker, cards, ...)
Proving theorems (mathematical theorems, laws of
physics, …)
Classification of text (Politics, Economic, sports, etc,)
Writing story and poems; solving puzzles
Giving advice in medicine, law, … (diagnosing
diseases, consultation, …)
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HOW TO MAKE COMPUTERS ACT LIKE
HUMANS?
The computer should posses the following components
 Natural Language processing (enable computers
communicate in human language, English, Amharic, ..)
 Knowledge representation (schemes to store information,
both facts and inferences, before and during interrogation)
 Automated reasoning (use stored information to answer questions and
to draw new conclusions)
 Machine learning (adapt to new circumstances and accumulate
knowledge)
 Computer vision (recognize objects based on patterns in the
same way as the human visual system does)
 Robotics (produce mechanical device capable of controlled motion;
which enable computers to see, hear & take actions)
 Is AI equals human intelligence ?

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PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
Each programming paradigms consists of two
aspects:
Methods for organizing data/knowledge,
Methods for controlling the flow of computation

Traditional paradigms:
Programs = data structure + algorithm

AI programming paradigms:

Programs = knowledge structure + inference mechanism

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BASIC KINDS OF SYSTEMS
 System is a set of components that interact to each other in a
logical way to achieve specific goals.
 There are different types of system based on the services, the
user type, and the method of operations
 Some of the systems includes:
 Information Systems
 Database Management System
 Information Retrieval System
 Expert System

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 EXPERT SYSTEM
• An expert system, also known as a knowledge based
system,
• a computer program that contains some of the subject-
specific (domain specific) knowledge of one or more
human experts.

• a system with two basic components:

• Knowledge base, which model the knowledge of an expert in the area
under consideration
• Inference engine

• When it is used by non expert user, it can serve as an

expert that guide the user to make an expert decision.
(doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc) 30
EXPERT SYSTEM
 Examples:
 Dendral, MYCIN, PUFF, ELIZA, BTDS, etc.

 Dendral expert system:

 The primary aim to aid organic chemists with identification of unknown
organic molecules by analyzing information from mass spectrometry
graphs and the knowledge of chemistry

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 EXPERT SYSTEM
 MYCIN:
• Written in LISP around 1970s and derived from Dendral expert system
• was designed to diagnose infectious blood diseases and recommend
antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight
• It would query the physician/patient running the program via a long series
of simple yes/no or textual questions.
• At the end, it provides
 a list of possible cause bacteria ranked from high to low based on the probability of
each diagnosis,
 its confidence in each diagnosis' probability

 the reasoning behind each diagnosis

• It has around ~50 rules

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 EXPERT SYSTEM
PUFF:
 PUFF can diagnose the presence and severity of lung disease and produce
reports for the patient's file

 Is
an Expert System that interprets lung function test data and has become a
working tool in the pulmonary physiology lab of a large number of hospital

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 EXPERT SYSTEM
 ELIZA :
• ELIZA is a very well-known artificial intelligence program designed to
emulate a Rogerian psychotherapist.
• The basic elements of Carl Rogers' new way of therapy was to have a more
personal relationship with the patient, to help the patient reach a state of
realization that they can help themselves
• ELIZA was showcased for a number of years at the MIT AI Laboratory.
• ELIZA has no reasoning ability, cannot learn
• ELIZA only appears to understand because "she" uses canned responses
based on keywords, as well as string substitution

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THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUMAN
BEINGS AND ARTIFICIALLY
INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
Human Brain Computers
 Natural device
 Non-natural device
 Self-willed and creative
 Limited creativity
 Basic unit – neuron
 Storage device –  Basic unit – RAM
electrochemical  Storage device is electromechanical
 Low crunching  High crunching
 Advanced detective reasoning
 Elementary detective reasoning
 Lower speed
 High speed
 Emotion-driven
 Limited volume  Non-emotional
 Fuzzy logic  Higher volume
 Numeric (binary) logic 35
WHAT COMPUTERS CAN DO BETTER
 Numeric computations
 Information storage

 Repetitive operation

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 HOW DO AI DIFFER FROM HUMAN
INTELLIGENCE

 The successful AI systems are neither artificial

nor intelligent
 The successful AI is based on:
 Human expertise
 Knowledge
 Selected reasoning pattern

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 The following points are taken as drawbacks of
Artificially Intelligent systems:
 AI do not come up with new and novel solutions
 Existing AI systems try to reproduce the expertise of humans, but do
not behave like human experts
 Lack of common-sense
 Reasoning: the human intelligence performs better in this respect

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COMPARISON B/N COMPUTER AND
BRAIN
 A crude comparison of the raw computational resources
available to computers (circa 2003) and brains

Parameter Computer Human Brain

Computational 1 CPU, 108 gates 10" neurons
units
Storage units 1010 bits RAM 10" neurons
10"bits disk 1014 synapses

Cycle time 10-9 sec 10-3 sec

Bandwidth 10" bitslsec 1014 bitslsec
Memory 109 1014
updateslsec
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