Module 2
Introduction to Sensors and Transducers
Sensors: The sensor are those elements which
respond directly to physical phenomenon's such
as heat, light ,pressure etc.
Ex: Sound from mike to loud speaker through
amplifier
Basic concept of sensor
Signal
I/P of sensor transducers o/p of sensor
conditioner
1
Transducers
A transducer can be defined as a device capable
of converting energy from one form into another.
Transducers can be found both at the input as
well as at the output stage of a measuring
system.
The input transducer is called the sensor, because
it senses the desired physical quantity and
converts it into another energy form. Thus
sensors are transducers. However measurement
system may use transducers in addition to the
sensor.
The output transducer is called the actuator,
because it converts the energy into a form to
which another independent system can react. 2
Classification of sensors and transducers
• sensors and transducers can be classified in to two basic types
depending on the form of the converted signal. The two types
are
1) Analog transducers
2) Digital transducers
• sensors and transducers can be classified in to two basic types
depending on the contact
1) Contact type Ex: Tactile sensor, force and torque sensor
2) Non contact type Ex: proximity sensor, acoustic sensor
• In order to be useful as measuring devices, in robotics and in other applications,
sensors must possess certain features. Some features listed below.
Sensor devices used in robot work cell
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E-kDsP0wq6w
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZLiLRlJzbU
• https://www.youtube.com/shorts/MF1o0kxNMRY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_E0Uitg4cAo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HxBOjJg55y4
Sensors in ROBOTICS
• The sensors in robotics include a wide range of
devices which can be divided in to the
following general categories:
1) Proximity and range sensors
2) Tactile sensors
3) Miscellaneous sensors and sensor- bases
systems
4) Machine vision systems
Proximity Sensors
• Proximity sensors are devices which detects the object when
the object approaches within the detection range or boundary
of the sensor.
• It is used in manufacturing process to detect metal and non
metal object.
• They are working based on different principles, namely;
optical, variable reluctance, eddy current loss, saturated core,
Hall Effect etc.
• One practical use of proximity sensor in robotics would be to
detect the presence or absence of a work part or other object.
Another important application is for sensing human beings in
the robot work cell.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
When an a.c flows in a coil, an alternating magnetic field is
generated in the coil
If a metal rod is placed in close proximity to this alternating
magnetic field, then a current is induced, known as EDDY
CURRENT
This eddy current itself produces a magnetic field, due to
which the magnetic field responsible for its production gets
distorted
This also results in changes of impedance of the coil as well as
the amplitude of the current
This change can be used to trigger a switch if a preset level is
used.
10
11
• It is used for the detection of non - magnetic but
conductive materials.
• They have the advantage of being relative
inexpensive compact size.
• With high reliability and can have high sensitivity to
small displacements.
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Eddy Current Sensor
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sq49hSZlpA0
Optical proximity sensor
• optical proximity sensors can be designed using
either visible or invisible light (infrared)sources.
•Infrared sensors may be active or passive .
•The active sensors send out an infrared beam and
respond to the reflection of the beam against a
target.
•Passive infrared sensors are simply devices which
detect the presence of infrared radiation in the
environment. They are often utilized in security
systems to detect the presence of bodies giving off
heat within the range of sensor.
• Another optical approach for proximity sensing involves the use of a collimated
light beam and a linear array of light sensors.
• By reflecting the light beam off the surface of the object, the location of the object
can be determined from of its reflected beam on the sensor array.
Optical proximity sensor
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rf2ymqBDvF8
Tactile sensor
• Tactile sensors are devices which indicate
contact between themselves and some other
solid object.
• Tactile sensing devices can be divided into two
classes touch sensors and force sensors.
Touch sensor
• Touch sensors provide a binary output signal which
indicates whether or not contact has been made with
the object.
• Included within this category are simple devices such
as limit switches, micro switches etc.
• It can be used to indicate the presence or absence of
parts in a fixture .
• Another use for a touch sensing device would be as
part of an inspection probe which is manipulated by
the robot to measure dimensions on a work part.
Touch Sensor
Limit Switch Micro Switch
Force sensors
• Force sensors indicates not only that contact
has been made with the object but also the
magnitude of the contact force between the
two objects.
• The capacity to measure forces permits the
robot to perform a number of tasks . These
include the capability to grasp parts of
different sizes in material handling , machine
loading and assembly work.
Force Sensor
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sp-eGgKh
Puk
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oO0cTFUOsB8
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhPw49fLYTc
Capacitive proximity sensor
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily
used to measure the linear displacements from few millimeters to
hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one
capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might
take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate
separation changes.
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = εr εo A / d
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between
the plates, εo permittivity of free space, A area of overlap
between two plates and d the plate separation
Capacitive proximity sensor animation
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1mA50tEmLQ
Optical sensors
Optical encoders
• Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular
displacement. These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure
the rotation of shafts.
• Figure shows the construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of
a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three
light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes.
• These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular
displacement of the mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the
Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole which
is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc.
• The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc.
With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,
360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.
Optical encoders Animation
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzHcsJDV3_o
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5gJpF8EKP8
Inductive Proximity Sensor
• Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect
non-magnetic but conductive materials.
• Figure shows the construction of eddy current
proximity switch.
• When an alternating current is passed through this coil, an
alternative magnetic field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then
eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude
of alternating current. This can be used to trigger a switch at
some pre-determined level of change in current.
• Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small
in size, highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small
displacements.
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2na8CumNR0
Animation at 7.55
Ultrasonic Sensor
An ultrasonic sensor has two parts:
– A transmitter that sends out a signal that humans cannot hear
– A receiver that receives the signal after it has bounced off nearby objects
The sensor sends out its signal and determines how long the
signal takes to come back.
– If the object is very close to the sensor, the signal comes back quickly
– If the object is far away from the sensor, the signal takes longer to
come back
– If objects are too far away from the sensor, the signal takes so long
to come back (or is very weak when it comes back) that the receiver
cannot detect it
Neuro-Distance Sensor
Robotic Distance Sensor
35
How Can We Measure Distance?
The ultrasonic sensor sends out
sound from one side and
receives sound reflected from an
object on the other side.
The sensor uses the time it takes
for the sound to come back from
the object in front to determine
the distance of an object.
Bats use the same principle!
The “sonic” in ultrasonic refers to sound, and “ultra” means that humans cannot
hear it (but bats and dogs can hear those sounds).
The ultrasonic sensor can measure distances in centimeters and inches. It can
measure from 0 to 2.5 meters, with a precision of 3 cm.
It works very well and provides good readings in sensing large-sized objects with
hard surfaces. But, reflections from soft fabrics, curved objects (such as balls) or
very thin and small objects can be difficult for the sensor to read.
Note: Two ultrasonic sensors in the same room may interfere with each other’s
readings. 36
How Are Ultrasonic Sensors Made?
The ultrasonic sensor sends
an ultrasonic sound (which you
cannot hear) from one of the “eyes”
shown to the right , and receives
the reflection in the other “eye,”
which acts like a microphone.
The air pressure vibrations makes the diaphragm move in that
microphone, and this diaphragm motion is sensed and converted
into an electrical signal (like the sound sensors you have studied).
The time lag between the sent and received sound is used by the
brick to estimate the distance to the object. As mentioned
before, this is how bats also estimate distance.
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Ultrasonic Sensor Animation
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=vf2lW4LkmMQ
• https://
www.youtube.com/shorts/P_YMeFNKZho
Echolocation
Bats use a process called “echolocation”
to locate prey or other objects.
What is echolocation?
• Bats produce a very high-pitch sound (ultrasonic, beyond the
human hearing range). Those sound waves travel through
air and bats listen carefully to any echoes that return.
• By determining how long echoes take to return, bats
estimate the distances of the objects. Bats also determine
how big objects are and in which direction they are located.
• The bat brain processes the echoes similarly to human
brains.
39
Echolocation Animation
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=laeE4icRYp4
Uses of sensors in Robotics
• The major uses of sensors in robotics can be
divided in to four basic categories.
1. Safety monitoring
2. Interlocks in work cell control
3. Part inspection for quality control
4. Determining positions and related
information about objects in the robot cell.
Safety monitoring
• Protection of human workers who work in the
vicinity of robot or other equipment.
Interlocks in work cell control
• An interlock in robotic work cell design is a method of
preventing the work cycle sequence from continuing unless a
certain condition or set of conditions are satisfied.
• It is a feature of work cell control which plays an important
role in regulating the sequence in which the various elements
of the cycles are carried out.
• Part inspection for quality control
Sensors can be used to determine a variety of part
quality characteristics.
Use of sensors permits the inspection operation to
be performed automatically on a 100% basis, in which
every part is inspected.
The limitation of this is sensor system can only inspect
for a limited range of part characteristics and defects.
For ex: sensor can only sense the dimensions of the
object ,it cannot detect flaws in the part surface.
Robotic vision and applications
Robotic vision
Most vision systems are equipped with one or more video cameras linked to a
vision processor.
The vision processor digitizes the camera image and analyzes it to define the
object.
The typical vision system consist of the camera and digitizing hardware , a digital
computer and hardware and software necessary to interface them. This interface
hardware and software is often referred to as a preprocessor.
The main applications of vision systems are in handling, assembly part
classification and inspection.
In handling, assembly part classification and inspection systems are used to
recognize the position and orientation of objects to be handled or assembled.
These systems can also determine the presence or absence of parts and detect
particular features of the object( for ex: diameter ).
• The operation of the vision system consist of
three functions.
1. Sensing and digitizing image data
2. Image processing and analysis
3. Application
Vision System Animation
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=atoUpGgw2fE
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=rYklSj1IQ3U
Sensing and digitizing image data
• It involves the input of vision data by means of a camera
focused on the scene of the interest.
• Special lighting techniques are frequently used to obtain
an image of sufficient contrast for later processing.
• The image consists of relative light intensities
corresponding to the various portions of the scene.
• These light intensities are continuous analog values
which must be sampled and converted in to digital form.
• The image viewed by the camera is typically digitized
and stored in computer memory.
Image processing and analysis
• The digitized image matrix for each frame is stored and then subjected to
image processing and analysis functions for data reduction and
interpretation of the image.
• Typically an image frame will be thresholded to produce a binary image
and then various feature measurements will further reduce the data
representation of the image.
• This data reduction can change the representation of a frame from several
hundred thousand bytes of raw image data to several hundred bytes of
feature value data.
• The resultant feature data can be analyzed in the available time for action
by the robot system to accomplish Image processing and analysis the
vision system frequently must be trained. In training, information is
obtained on prototype objects and stored as computer models.
Application
• The third function of a machine vision system
is the applications function.
• The current application of machine vision in
robotics include inspection , part identification
, location and orientation.
