Module 3

Basic Concepts and

Representation
Introduction
• System–An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired
purpose.

• Control System–An interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired response.

• Process–The device, plant, or system under control. The input and

output relationship represents the cause-and effect relationship of
the process.
Control Systems
• In a control system, the variations in the output quantity are
continuously through feedback and compared with the input
quantity.
• The excitation signal given to the system is a reference input and the
output quantity is called as a response.
Control Systems
The basic components of a control system are as below:
• Plant
• Feedback
• Controller
• Error detector

• The combined unit or error detector, controller, plant, and feedback

make a complete automatic control system.
Control Systems
• Plant: The portion of a system that is to be controlled or regulated is called a
plant or process.
• It is a unit where actual processing is performed and the input of the plant is
the controlled signal generated by a controller.
• A plant performs necessary actions on a controlled system and produces the
desired output.
• Feedback: It is a controlled action in which the output is sampled and a
proportional signal is given to the input for automatic correction of any
changes in the desired output.
• The output is given as feedback to the input for correction i.e. information
about the output is given to input for correcting the changes in output due to
disturbances.
• The feedback signal is fed to the error detector.
• Negative feedback is preferred as it results in better stability and accuracy. The
other disturbance signals are rejected.
Control Systems
• Error detector: The function of the error detector is to compare the
reference input with the feedback signal.
• It produces an error signal which is a difference of two inputs which are a
reference signal and a feedback signal.
• The error signal is fed to the controller for necessary controlled action.
• This error signal is used to correct the output if there is a deviation from the
desired value.
• Controller: the element of a system within itself or external to the system
which controls the plant is called as a controller.
• The error signal will be a weak signal and so it has to be amplified and then
modified for better control action.
• In most of the systems, the controller itself amplifies the error signal and
integrates or differentiates to generate a control signal.
• An amplifier is used to amplify the error signals and the controller modifies
the error signal.
Control Systems
• Open-Loop Control System - A system that is not capable of
correcting the changes in the output by itself is called as an open-loop
system.

• Output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity; output is not
given as feedback to the input for correction.
• When the output changes due to external disturbances then it is not
followed by the changes in input to correct the output.
Open Loop Control System

• In open loop control system, when we start the pump, it will continue fill
the fluid in the tank but at a time tank will overflow still pump will not stop.
• In open loop control we don’t have feedback mechanism.
• We have to manually control the pump by putting a man at near the tank.
• He will see that if the high level switch glow then he will stop the pump
and if low level will glow then he will start the pump.
Open Loop Control Systems
Advantages of open-loop system:
• The open loop systems are simple and economical.
• They are easier to construct.
• The open-loop systems are stable.

Disadvantages of open-loop system:

• The open loop systems are inaccurate and unreliable.
• The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not
corrected automatically.
Control Systems
• Closed-loop systems - Control systems in which the output has an
effect upon the input quantity in such a manner so as to maintain the
desired output are called as closed-loop systems.
• The open-loop systems can be modified as closed-loop systems by
providing feedback.
• The changes in the output due to disturbances are corrected
automatically by using feedback.
Closed Loop Control Systems

• In open loop control system, when we start the pump we have no status of
the tank level but in closed loop control we have status of tank level.
• If tank level goes below, low level switch act and the pump will start by
controller and if the tank level goes high then the high level switch act and
controller stop the pump.
• Hence the difference between the open loop and closed loop control
system.
Closed Loop Control Systems
Advantages of closed-loop system:
• Closed-loop systems are accurate.
• They are accurate even in the presence of nonlinearity.
• They are more stable.
• They are less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of closed-loop system:

• They are complex and expensive.
• The feedback in the closed-loop system may leave to the oscillatory
response.
• More care is needed to design a closed-loop system.
• The overall gain of the system is reduced due to feedback.
Comparison
Control System

Example: Driving System of an automobile

• Speed of the automobile is a function of the position of its accelerator.
• The desired speed can be maintained (or desired change in speed can be
achieved) by controlling pressure on the accelerator pedal.
• This automobile driving system (accelerator, carburetter and engine vehicle)
constitutes a control system.
Control System

• For the automobile driving system, the input (command) signal is the
force on the accelerator pedal which through linkages causes the
carburettor valve to open (close) so as to increase or decrease fuel
(liquid form) flow to the engine bringing the engine-vehicle speed
(controlled variable) to the desired value.
• Each block has an input and output signal which are linked by a
relationship characterizing the block.
• It may be noted that the signal flow through the block is
unidirectional.
Closed Loop Control System
• Reconsider the automobile driving system.
• The route, speed and acceleration of the automobile are determined
and controlled by the driver by observing traffic and road conditions
and by properly manipulating the accelerator, clutch, gear-lever,
brakes and steering wheel, etc.
Closed Loop Control System
• Suppose the driver wants to maintain a speed of 50 km per hour
(desired output). He accelerates the automobile to this speed with
the help of the accelerator and then maintains it by holding the
accelerator steady.
• No error in the speed of the automobile occurs so long as there are
no gradients or other disturbances along the road.
• The actual speed of the automobile is measured by the speedometer
and indicated on its dial. The driver reads the speed dial visually and
compares the actual speed with the desired one mentally.
• If there is a deviation of speed from the desired speed, accordingly he
takes the decision to increase or decrease the speed.
• The decision is executed by change in pressure of his foot ( through
muscular power) on the accelerator pedal.
Automobile Steering Control System
• A simple block diagram of an automobile steering mechanism.

• The driver senses visually and by tactile means (body movement) the
error between the actual and desired directions of the automobile.
Automobile Steering Control System
• Additional information is available to the driver from the feel
(sensing) of the steering wheel through his hand(s), these
informations constitute the feedback signal(s) which are interpreted
by driver's brain, who then signals his hand to adjust the steering
wheel accordingly.
• It is an example of a closed-loop system where human visual and
tactile measurements constitute the feedback loop.
• In fact unless human being(s) are not left out of in a control system
study practically all control systems are a sort of closed-loop system
(with intelligent measurement and sensing loop or there may indeed
by several such loops)
Block Diagram
• An error detector compares a signal obtained through feedback
elements, which is a function of the output response, with the
reference input.
• Any difference between these two signals constitutes an error or
actuating signal, which actuates the control elements.
• The control elements in turn alter the conditions in the plant
(controlled member) in such a manner as to reduce the original error.
Simple tank level control system
• This control system can
maintain the liquid level h
(controlled output) of the
tank within accurate
tolerance of the desired liquid
level even though the output
flow rate through the valve
V1 is varied.
• The liquid level is sensed by a
float (feedback path
element), which positions the
slider arm B on a
potentiometer.
Simple tank level control system
• The Slider arm A of another potentiometer is positioned
corresponding to the desired liquid level H (the reference input).
• When the liquid level rises or falls, the potentiometer (error detector)
gives an error voltage (error or actuating signal) proportional to the
change in liquid level.
• The error voltage actuates the motor through a power amplifier
(control elements) which in turn conditions the plant (i.e., decreases
or increases the opening of the valve V2 in order to restore the
desired liquid level.
• Thus the control system automatically attempts to correct any
deviation between the actual and desired liquid levels in the tank.
Mathematical Models of Control System
• A control system is a collection of physical objects (components)
connected together to serve an objective.
• The input output relations of various physical components of a system
are governed by differential equations.
• The response or the output of the system can be studied by solving
the differential equations for various input conditions.
• The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys the principle
of superposition and homogeneity.
Mathematical Models of Control System
• A mathematical model will be linear if the differential equation
describing the system has constant coefficients ( or the coefficients
may be functions of independent variables)

• If the coefficients of the differential equation describing the system

are constants then the model is linear time invariant.

• If the coefficients of the differential equation governing the system

are functions of time then the model is linear time varying.

• The differential equation of linear time invariant system can be

reshaped into different form for the convenience of analysis.
Mathematical Models of Control System
• One such model for single input and single output system analysis is
transfer function of the system.

• The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace

transform of output to the Laplace transform of input with zero initial
conditions.
Electrical Systems
• The models of electrical systems can be obtained by using resistor,
capacitor and inductor.
• For modelling electrical systems, the electrical network or equivalent
circuit is formed by using R, L and C and voltage or current source.
• The differential equations governing the electrical systems can be
formed by writing kirchoff’s current law equations by choosing
various nodes in the network or kirchoff’s voltage law equations by
choosing various closed paths in the network.
• The transfer function can be obtained by taking the laplace transform
of the differential equations and rearranging them as ratio of output
to input.
Electrical Systems
Electrical Systems
Electrical Systems
Electrical Systems
Problem
• Obtain the transfer function of the electrical network.

• In the given network, input is e(t) and output is v2(t).

Problem
• Transform the voltage source in series with resistance R1 into
equivalent current source.
• The network has two nodes. Let the node voltages be V1 and V2.
• The Laplace transform of node voltages V1 and V2 are V1(s) and V2(s)
respectively.
• The differential equations governing the network are given by the
Kirchoff’s current law equations at these nodes.
Problem
Problem
Problem
Block Diagrams
• A control system may consist of a number of components.

• In control engineering to show the functions performed by each

component, we commonly use a diagram called block diagram.

• A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions

performed by each component and the flow of the signals. Such a diagram
depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various components .

• The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing
point.
Elements of Block Diagram
• Block : In the block diagram all system variables are linked to each
other through functional blocks.
• The functional blocks or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical
operation on the input signal to the block that produces the output.
• The transfer function of the components are usually entered in the
corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the
direction of the flow of signals.
• The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the input.
• The arrowhead leading away from the block indicates the output.
• The output signal from the block is given by the product of input
signal and transfer function in the block.
Elements of Block Diagram
• Summing Point : It is used to add two or more signals in the system.
• A Circle with cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation.
• The plus/minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether the signal is
to added or subtracted.

• Branch Point: A branch point is a point from which the signal from a
block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
Block Diagram Reduction
• The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function
of the system.
• The following rules can be used for the block diagram reduction.
• The rules are framed such that any modification made on the diagram
does not alter the input-output relation.
Rules of Block Diagram Algebra
Block Diagram Reduction
Block Diagram Reduction
Block Diagram Reduction
Block Diagram Reduction
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Signal Flow Graph
Signal Flow Graph
Signal Flow Graph
Properties of Signal Flow Graph
Signal Flow Graph Algebra
• Signal flow graph can be reduced to obtain the transfer function of
the system using the following rules.
• The guidelines in developing the rules for signal flow graph algebra is
that the signal at the node is given by sum of all incoming signals.
Rules of Signal Flow Graph
Rules of Signal Flow Graph
Signal Flow Graph Reduction
Mason’s Gain Formula
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