Gas Turbine

Introduction
 Applications of the Gas Turbine
• Jet propulsion/Aircraft – Produces just enough power
to drive the compressor and a small generator to
power the auxiliary equipment.
• Power generation - use gas turbines to generate
electricity…very efficient; as stand-alone units or in
conjunction with steam power plants.
• Marine applications - large ships
 Gas-turbine cycles (types)
• Direct open: Used in jet aircraft
• Indirect open: Suitable where environmental concerns
prevent the air from receiving heat directly.

Direct open Indirect open

 Gas-turbine cycles (types)
• Direct & Indirect closed: Best suited for heat transfer
from nuclear-reactors compared to open type.

Direct closed Indirect closed

Ideal Brayton cycle
Brayton cycle (Processes; P-v & T-s Diagrams)
• 1 to 2 -- isentropic compression
• 2 to 3 -- constant pressure heat addition (replaces
combustion process)
• 3 to 4 -- isentropic expansion in the turbine
• 4 to 1 -- constant pressure heat rejection to return air
to original state

6
 Brayton cycle Analysis
Because the Brayton cycle operates between two constant
pressure lines, or isobars, the pressure ratio (rp) is
important.
As with any cycle, we’re going to concern ourselves with
the efficiency and net work output:
w net
Efficiency: 
q in

Net work: w net  w turb  w comp

 Brayton cycle Analysis
1 to 2 (isentropic compression in compressor):
w comp  h 2  h1
2 to 3 (constant pressure heat addition - treated as a heat
exchanger)
q in  q 23  h 3  h 2
3 to 4 (isentropic expansion in turbine)
w turb  h 3  h 4
4 to 1 (constant pressure heat rejection)
q out  h 4  h1
8
 Brayton cycle Analysis
The efficiency is given by:

w net (h 3  h 4 )  (h 2  h1 )
 
q in (h 3  h 2 )
(h 4  h1 ) c p (T4  T1 )
 1    1 
(h 3  h 2 ) c p (T3  T2 )

T1 T4 T1  1
  1
T2 T3 T2  1
 Brayton cycle Analysis
Using the isentropic relationships,
k 1 k 1 k 1
T2  p 2  k T4  p 4  k  p1  k
  ;    
T1  p1  T3  p3   p2 

Let’s define:
P2 P3
rp  pressure ratio  
P1 P4

10
 Brayton cycle Analysis

Then we can relate the temperature ratios to the pressure

ratio:
T2 k 1 k T3
 rp 
T1 T4
Plug back into the efficiency expression and simplify:

1
  1 k 1 k
rp
Brayton cycle Analysis

12
 Brayton cycle Analysis

An important quantity for Brayton cycles is the Back

Work Ratio (BWR).
BWR

w comp
BWR 
w turb

Why might this be important?

 Brayton cycle Analysis

The Back-Work Ratio is the Fraction

of Turbine Work Used to Drive the
Compressor
 Brayton cycle Analysis
• In theory, as the pressure ratio goes up, the efficiency
rises. The limiting factor is frequently the turbine inlet
temperature, which is currently restricted to about 1,700
K (2,600 °F).
• The air has following functions: It supplies the necessary
oxidant for the combustion of fuel and it serves as a
coolant to keep the temperature of various components
within limits. Furthermore, more air is drawn than is
needed for the complete combustion of fuel.
 Brayton Cycle: Max Net Work
For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net work of the
Brayton cycle first increases with the pressure ratio, then
reaches a maximum at rp=(Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k-1)], and finally
decreases
 Brayton Cycle: Max Net Work
What happens to th and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider the T-s
diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle represents the net
work done.

Let's take a closer look at the effect of the

pressure ratio on the net work done.
wnet  wturb  wcomp
 C p (T3  T4 )  C p (T2  T1 )
 C p T3 (1  T4 / T3 )  C p T1 (T2 / T1  1)
1 ( k 1)/ k
 C p T3 (1  ( k 1)/ k
)  C p T1 (rp  1)
rp
 Brayton Cycle: Max Net Work
Note that the net work is zero when
k /( k 1)
 T3 
rp  1 and rp   
 T1 
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k
1
wnet  C p T3 (1  )  C p T1 ( X  1)
X
dwnet
 C p T3[0  ( 1) X 2 ]  C p T1[1  0]  0
dX
Solving for X ,
 Brayton Cycle: Max Net Work
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed T3
and T1 is

For the same procedure, this gives a value of T2 as: T2  (T1 T3 )1/ 2

( k 1) / k
And since T2 / T1  T3 / T4  rp , then

T2  T4
For the ideal Brayton cycle, the following results are
true:

• When rp = rp,max work, T4 = T2

• When rp < rp,max work, T4 > T2
• When rp > rp,max work, T4 < T2
 Brayton Cycle: Max Net Work
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency as a function of the
pressure ratio.
280 0.60
0.55
th  rp
260

240 0.50

th  k 220
0.45
0.40
w ne t kJ/kg

200

th,Brayton
T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P 1 = 95 kPa
T3 = 1100 K 0.30
160
t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
rp,ma x
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
P ra tio

th is independent of
temperatures.
Brayton Cycle

Non-ideal
 Non-ideal Brayton Cycle

The pressure ratio across the compressor ( rp,c ) would be greater

than the pressure ratio across the turbine ( rp,t ).
 Non-ideal Brayton Cycle (Isentropic efficiency)
The deviation of the actual compressor and turbine from the idealized
isentropic ones can be accurately accounted for by utilizing their
adiabatic (isentropic) efficiencies, defined as
h3  h4 a
T 
h3  h4 s

If we assume constant specific heats, Turbine

T3  T4 a
T 
T3  T4 s
and
h2 s  h1
C 
h2 a  h1
If we assume constant specific heats, Compressor
T2 s  T1
C 
T2 a  T1
where states 1 and 3 are the inlet states, 2a and 4a are the actual exit
states, and 2s and 4s are the isentropic exit states.
 Non-ideal Brayton Cycle
The net power of the cycle, for constant specific heats,

 (T2 s  T1 )
W  
m c [(T  T )  (T  T )]  
m c [(T  T )  ]
net p 3 4 2 1 p 3 4s T
C
and in terms of the min and max temperatures and pressure ratio,
 T r ( k 1) / k
 
W  c pT1  3 T  p
m 1  ( k 1 
net  C  1) / k 
 T1  rp 
The heat added in the cycle, for constant specific heats, is given by
 r p( k 1) / k  1
Q in  m c p (T3  T2 )  m c p (T3  T1 )  T1 
 C 
The efficiency of the cycle can then be obtained by dividing the above two equations,

W net
th  
Qin
Brayton Cycle

Improvements
 Regenerative Brayton Cycle
For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the
compressor exit temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed
between the hot gases leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the
compressor. This heat exchanger is called a regenerator or recuperator. The
sketch of the regenerative Brayton cycle is shown below.
 Regenerative Brayton Cycle

We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred
to the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat
transfer to the compressor gases.

qregen , act  h5  h2
qregen , max  h5'  h2  h4  h2
qregen , act h5  h2
 regen  
qregen , max h4  h2
 Regenerative Brayton Cycle
For ideal gases using the assumption of constant specific heats, the regenerator
effectiveness becomes
T5  T2
 regen 
T4  T2
The effectiveness of most regenerators in practice is below 0.85.

Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection
as steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout h6  h1
th ,regen  1  1
qin h3  h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in
the efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across
the cycle boundary.

Note: Under cold air standard

assumptions, the thermal
efficiency of an ideal Brayton
cycle with (ideal) regeneration is
 Regenerative Brayton Cycle
The following shows a plot of the regenerative (Ideal) Brayton cycle efficiency
as a function of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio,
T1/T3.

Shows that regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios and low
minimum to maximum temperature ratios.
 Regenerative Brayton Cycle (Example)
A regenerative gas-turbine power plant operating on an actual Brayton
cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the
compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. If the regenerator has
an effectiveness of 80%, with the compressor and turbine efficiencies
at 80% and 85%, respectively; determine the
(a) compressor and turbine exit temperatures.
(b) back work ratio.
(c) cycle thermal efficiency.
(d) heat transfer in the regenerator.
 Assignment # 5

1. In the preceding example, what was the temperature

drop experienced in the regenerator by the turbine
exhaust line?

2. Under cold air standard assumptions, the thermal

efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle with (ideal)
regeneration is

Derive this equation.

 Brayton Cycle (Other Improvements)
Intercooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance
of the Brayton cycle with regeneration.
 Brayton Cycle with Intercooling
When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages will
reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is reduced
because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of the fluid
and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given pressure rise.

For two-stage compression, let’s assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor,
such that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1. Then the intermediate pressure at which intercooling
should take place to minimize the compressor work, in this case is given by:
P2  P1 P4
or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are
equal.
P2 P4 P4
 
P1 P2 P3
When the temperature rises are equal, the pressure
ratios are equal because
n /( n 1)
 T2 
rp    (n = k for ideal compression)
 T1 
 Brayton Cycle with Intercooling
And the general expression for the pressure ratio per stage is given by
rp , stage ,c  N c rp ,tot ,c
where Nc is the number of compressor sections (there are 2 in this case).
rp,stage,c is the pressure ratio per stage (P2 / P1 in this case) and
rp,tot,c is the overall pressure ratio (P4 / P1 in this case).

Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling, the

compressor final exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more heat must be supplied
in the heat addition process to achieve the maximum temperature of the cycle.
Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.
 Brayton Cycle with Reheating
When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating
between stages will increase the net work done (it also increases the average
temperature of heat rejection). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating was
shown above.

The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the
turbine work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming
reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure
steady-flow process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be
P7  P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal.
P6 P7 P8
 
P7 P9 P9
Similarly, the general expression for the pressure ratio per turbine stage is given by

rp , stage,T  NT rp ,tot ,T
where NT is the number of turbine sections (there are 2 in this case).
 Regenerative Brayton Cycle (Example)
An ideal gas-turbine with two stages of compression and two stages of
expansion cycle has an overall pressure ratio of 8. Air enters each stage of
the compressor at 300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1300 K. Determine
the back work ratio and thermal efficiency assuming (a) no regenerator (b)
an ideal regenerator with 100% effectiveness.
Consider ideal compressors and turbines and no pressure losses.
Combined Cycles

General
FIGURE.
Combined gas–vapor
cycle.
 Combined Cycles (Advantages)
Combined cycle power plants are those which have both gas and steam
turbines supplying power. A summary of some of its advantages/disadvantages
is as follows:

Efficiencies exceeding 50% can be attained.

Suitable for Cogeneration.
Increased complexity
 Combined Gas-Steam Power Cycle (Example)
In the figure below, the topping cycle is a gas-turbine cycle that has a
pressure ratio of 8. Air enters the compressor at 300 K and the turbine at
1300 K. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80% and that of the
gas-turbine is 85%. The bottoming cycle is a simple ideal Rankine cycle
operating between the pressure limits of 7 MPa & 5 kPa. Steam is heated in
a heat exchanger by the exhaust gases to a temperature of 500 °C. The
exhaust gases leave the heat exchanger at 450 K. Determine (a) the ratio of
the mass flow rates of the steam and the combustion gases and (b) the
thermal efficiency of the combined cycle.
FIGURE.
Mercury–water binary

vapor cycle.
 Combined Cycles (Advantages)
Advantages/disadvantages of binary-vapor cycles are as follows:

Efficiencies exceeding 50% can be attained.

Mercury has a high critical temperature (898 °C) compared to water (374 °C).
Not economically attractive due to high initial cost and competition offered
by combined gas-steam power plant.
Mercury is toxic.