BASICS OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
 Introduction
Types of extrinsic semiconductors
N-type - Electrons are majority charge carriers and
while holes are minority charge carriers

P-type – Holes are majority charge carriers and while

electrons are minority charge carriers

These two types of materials are chemically combined

with a special fabrication technique to form a p-n
junction. Such a p-n junction form an electronics device
called diode.

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 PN JUNCTION DIODE
Join a piece of P-type semiconductor to a piece of N-type
semiconductor such that the crystal remains contionues at
the boundary.
PN junction forms very useful device and is called a
seiconductor diode or PN junction diode as shown

Holes and
EC8353 ELECTRON Electrons
DEVICES AND – mobile charge carriers
CIRCUITS Positive and negative ions – immobile charges
 Formation of Depletion Layer in a
PN junction
In P-region has holes(Majority carrier) and negatively charged
impurity atoms, called negative ions (acceptor ions)
In N-region has free electrons(Majority carrier) and positively
charged impurity atoms, called negative ions (donor ions)
Holes and Electrons are the mobile charge carriers. Positive and
Negative ions are immobile charges and it do not in conduction.
As soon as the PN junction is formed, some of the holes in P-
region and free electrons in N-region diffuse each other and
disappear due to recombination.
The region containing the uncovered acceptor and donor ions is
called depletion region. The depletion layer behaves like an
insulator.
TheEC8353 ELECTRON DEVICES AND
higher the doping level, the thinner the depletion layer.
CIRCUITS
Formation of Depletion Layer in a PN
junction

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V-I characteristics under forward
biased condition

Cut in voltage (V0) 0.3 v for Germanium

0.7 v for silicon
At cut in voltage, potential barrier is overcome and current through
the junction
EC8353 ELECTRONstarts increases
DEVICES AND rapidly.
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When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-
type and negative terminal to the N-type of the PN junction
diode, the bias is known as forward bias.
Applied positive potential repels the holes in P-type region so
that holes move towards the junction and the applied negative
potential repels the electrons in the N-type region and the
electrons moves towards the junction.
When applied potential is more then disappear depletion
region.
When VF<V0 then forward current almost zero.
When VF>V0 then large forward current flows. Here potential
barrier or depletion layer is disappear.

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V-I characteristics under reverse
biased condition

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 When negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type
and positive terminal to the N-type of the PN junction diode, the
bias is known as reverse bias.
 Under reverse bias, holes of majority carrier in P-type region move
towards negative terminal of the battery and electrons of majority
carrier in N-type region move towards positive terminal of the
battery.
 Which is increases the depletion layer or potential barrier.
 Ideally there is no current flows. Practically very small current of
order of few microampere flows.
 Minority carrier in P-region and N-region trying to flows across
junction and give rise to small reverse current. This current known
as Reverse saturation current.
 When large reverse voltage applied then sufficient energy to
dislodge valance electron. Then conduction takes place and which
voltage
EC8353called breakdown
ELECTRON voltage
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ADVANTAGES AND
APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
No filament is necessary
 Occupies lesser space
 Long life

APPLICATIONS-
 as rectifiers to convert AC into DC.
 As an switch in computer circuits.
 As detectors in radios to detect audio signals
 As LED to emit different colours.
It can be used as a solar cell.
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 ZENER DIODE
Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped PN junction
diode which operates in breakdown region.
The reverse breakdown of a PN junction may occurs either
due to zener effect or avalanche effect.
Zener effect dominates at reverse voltage less than 6V and
avalanche effect dominates above 6V
For zener diodes, Silicon is preferred to Ge because of its
higher temperature and current capability.
Symbol of zener diode as shown

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 Forward biasing zener diode
Anode connected to positive terminal of battery and cathode
connected to negative terminal of battery.
Its behavior identical to F.B diode
General zener diode not used in F.B condition

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 Reverse biasing zener diode
Cathode connected to positive terminal of battery and Anode
connected to negative terminal of battery.
Its operation is differ from that of diode.
Zener diode in reverse biased condition is used as a voltage regulator.

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 V-I characteristics of zener diode
V-I characteristics of zener diode can be divided into two parts
Forward characteristics
Reverse characteristics
Forward characteristics
The characteristics as shown
It is almost identical to the as a PN junction diode

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 Reverse characteristics
 Reverse voltage increases, initially small reverse saturation current I 0, in order
of μA will flow. This current due to thermally generated minority carriers.
 At particular reverse voltage, reverse current increase sharp and suddenly.
This indication that breakdown occurs.
 This breakdown voltage is called as zener breakdown voltage or zener voltage
and it is denoted by Vz
 After breakdown Vz remains constant and further increase only reverse zener
current.
 For controlling zener current put R and which avoid excess heat.

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Application

Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator

Zener diode is used as a peak clipper in wave shaping
circuits
Zener diode is used as a fixed reference voltage in
transistor biasing circuits.
Zener diode is used for meter protection against
damage from accidental application of excessive
voltage.

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 Breakdown mechanism
If reverse bias voltage applied to a PN junction is increased, a
point will reach when the junction breakdown and reverse
current rises sharply to a value limited only by the external
resistance connected in series.
This specific value of reverse bias voltage is called
breakdown voltage
The breakdown voltage depends on width of depletion layer.
This width of depletion layer depends on doping level.
Process of causes junction breakdown due to increase in
reverse bias voltage as
Zener breakdown
Avalanche breakdown
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 Zener breakdown
It observed when Vz<6V. If apply Vz then strong electric
field appear across narrow depletion region.
Value of electric field as 3*10^5v/cm.
Due to this electric field pull valance electron into conduction
band to breaking covalent bond.
So large no of free electron causes to reverse current through
zener diode and breakdown occurs due to zener effect.

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 Avalanche Breakdown
It observed when Vz>6V.
Reverse bias condition conduction due to only in minority
carrier.
Reverse voltage increase, then accelerates minority carrier
and causes to increase K.E
Accelerates minority carrier collide with stationary atom and
K.E causes valance electron present in covalent bond.
Now valance electron breakdown covalent bond and become
free for conduction.
Now increase more no free electrons collide. This
phenomenon is called as avalanche multiplication.

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In short time large no of free minority electrons and holes
available for conduction and which causes self sustained
multiplication process called ‘Avalanche effect’
Large reverse current starts flowing through zener diode and
occur avalanche breakdown.

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 ZENER REGULATOR
Fig shows circuit of zener diode shunt regulator.
Load connected parallel to zener diode and so called shunt
regulator.
Rs limit the current and V0 taken across RL

For proper operation Vin>Vz

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 Classification of Transistor
Two types of transistor as
Unipolar junction transistor
 Current conduction due to only majority carrier. Commonly known as FET.
It is voltage operated devices
FET can classified as
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
Metal semiconductor FET (MESFET)
Biploar junction transistor
 Current conduction due to both holes and electrons. It is current operated
devices and classified as npn, pnp

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Classification of Transistor

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 TRANSISTOR (BJT)
Transistor construction
Types as n-p-n and p-n-p transistor
Three region as
 Emitter (E)
 Base (B)
 Collector (C)

Emitter
It placed one side, which supplies charge carrier to other region.
It is heavily doped
Base
It is middle in region forms two PN junction. It is lightly doped
and thinner region
Collector
It is opposite to the emitter and collect charge. It is larger region
EC 8353 ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND
compared to other two. Doping level is intermediate.
CIRCUITS GPJ
 Standard transistor symbol

It has two junction like two diode

JE as emitter diode and act as F.B
JC as collector diode and act as R.B
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 Modes of operation
If transistor operate as an amplifier, it biased with external voltages.
Depends on external bias voltage polarity, transistor works as any
one of the three region

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 Transistor operation
E-B junction as F.B and C-B junction as R.B.
Ie flows through the collector region.
Working as npn transistor:
E-B junction as F.B and C-B junction as R.B
Electrons in n-region(E) flows in to p-region(B)
B- lightly doping so that small electrons only recombine to holes
and remaining current flows to n-region (C)
IE=IB+IC
IC has minority carrier and majority carrier current

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Working as pnp transistor:
E-B junction as F.B and C-B junction as R.B
Holes in p-region(E) flows in to n-region(B)
B- lightly doping so that small holes only recombine to
electrons and remaining holes current flows to p-region (C)
Current conduction takes place only by holes
But external wiring still current be electron.

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 Types of configuration
Connection of transistor circuit as
One terminal is i/p
Other terminal is o/p
Other terminal common between i/p and o/p

S.N Configuratio Input Output Common Also Called

o n terminal as
1 CB E C B Grounded
Base
Configuration
2 CE B C E Grounded
Emitter
Configuration
3 CC B E C Grounded
Collector
Configuration
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 Common Base configuration
I/p applied as E-B
O/p taken as C-B
Base is common for i/p and o/p

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 Common Emitter Configuration
I/p applied as B-E and o/p applied as C-E
E is common for both i/p and o/p

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 Common collector configuration
I/p applied as B-C and o/p taken as E-C
C is common for both i/p and o/p

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Comparison of CE, CE and CC
configuration

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