CHAPTER -4

Network Layer

By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal

By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 1
IPV4 Header
 IPv4 Header Format

● Version (4 bits): Indicates the version number, In this case 4

● HLEN (Header Length ,4 bits): Length of headeris 4 bit in 32 bit words. The minimum value
is five for a minimum header length of 20 octets

● TOS (Type-of-Service , 8 bit): The Type-of-Service field contains an 8- bit binary value
that is used to determine the priority of each packet

● Length (8 bits): Total datagram/ packet length ,in bytes (octets)

● Identifier (16 bits): A sequence number that, together with the source address, destination
address, and user protocol, is intended to uniquely identify a packet
• Flags(3 bits): Only two of the bits are currently defined
1. MF(More Fragments) bit
2. DF(Don't Fragment) bit
3. Future use bit
• Fragment Offset : A router may have to fragment a packet when
forwarding it from one medium to another medium that has a smaller
MTU *. When fragmentation occurs, the IPv4 packet uses the
Fragment Offset field and the MF flag in the IP header to
reconstruct the packet when it arrives at the destination host.
• TTL (Time-to-Live, 8-bit): Indicates the remaining "life" of the
packet
• The TTL value is decreased by at least one each time the packet is
processed by a router (that is, each hop). When the value becomes
zero, the router discards or drops the packet and it is removed from
the network data flow
• Protocol (8-bits): Indicates the data payload type that the packet
is carrying (TCP/UDP).
• Destination Address(32 bits): value that represents the packet
destination Network layer host address
• Source Address (32 bit): value that represents the packet source
Network layer host address
 Address Depletion Problem in Internet

Because of limited number of IP and increasing

demand of IP in internet over years lead to depletion
of IP address
Solution of depletion are mainly
1. NAT
2. Subnetting
3. IPv6
 Network Address Translation (NAT)
• IP address have public range and private range
• Public range is used for communication in internet and can used only
with permission of internet authorities
• Private IP can be used for local communication without permission of
Internet authorities
 Limitations of IPv4

• Exponential growth of the Internet and the impending exhaustion of

the IPv4 address space
• Need for simpler configuration
• Requirement for security at the IP level
• Need for better support for prioritized and real-time delivery of
data
 IPv6

● An IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is 128 bits long

● IPv6 specifies hexadecimal colon notation. In this notation,

● 128 bits is divided into eight sections, each 2 bytes in length. Two bytes in hexadecimal

● notation requires four hexadecimal digits. Therefore, the address consists of 32 hexadecimal

● digits, with every four digits separated by a colon

● 128 bits = 16 bytes = 32 hexadecimal digits

● IPv6 has a much larger address space; 2^128 addresses are available
Example IPv6
FDEC: 0074 : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : BOFF : 0000 : FFFO

• Types of IPv6 Address

• Unicast address : Packet delivered to one node
• Multicast address : Packet delivered to group of nodes
• Any cast address : Similar to multicast but delivered to nearest node •
Reserved Address
 IPv6 Features

1. New header format

2. Large address space
3. Stateless and stateful address configuration
4. IPsec header support required
5. Better support for prioritized delivery
6. New protocol for neighboring node interaction 7.
Extensibility
IPV6 Header Format
• Version (4 bit): Indicates version (6) of IP packet.
• Traffic Class (8 bit): Facilitates the handling of real time data by
router. It Prioritize the packets (packet is send /dropped based on
priority)
• Flow Control (20 bit): Used to label sequences of packets that
require the same treatment for more efficient processing on routers.
• Payload Length (16 bit): Length of data carried after IPv6 header.
• Next Header (8 bit): Identifies the higher level protocol(identify
the start of higher level header) Hop Limit (8 bit): This field indicates
how long packet can remain in network.
• Source Address (128 bit): This Field indicates the IPv6 address
from which packet is generated.
• Destination Address (128 bit): This field indicates the IPv6 address
to which packet is going
IPv6 - Addressing Modes
TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6
 Dual Stack

•It is recommended that all hosts, before migrating

completely to version 6, have a dual stack of protocols.

•In other words, a station must run IPv4 and IPv6

simultaneously until all the Internet uses IPv6.
 Tunneling

•Tunneling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want

to communicate with each other and the packet must pass through a
region that uses IPv4.

•To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address.

•So the IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it

enters the region, and it leaves its capsule when it exits the region.

•It seems as if the IPv6 packet goes through a tunnel at one end
and emerges at the other end.

•To make it clear that the IPv4 packet is carrying an IPv6 packet as
data, the protocol value is set to 41.
 Header translation

•Header translation is necessary when the majority of the

Internet has moved to IPv6 but some systems still use IPv4.

•The sender wants to use IPv6, but the receiver does not
understand IPv6.

•Tunneling does not work in this situation because the packet

must be in the IPv4 format to be understood by the receiver.

•In this case, the header format must be totally changed

through header translation. The header of the IPv6 packet is
converted to an IPv4 header
Address of IPV6
 ROUTING
• When a device has multiple paths to reach a destination,
it always selects one path by preferring it over others.
• This selection process is termed as Routing.
• Routing is done by special network devices called routers
• A router is always configured with some default route.
• A default route tells the router where to forward a
packet if there is no route found for specific destination.
• In case there are multiple path existing to reach the
same destination, router can make decision based on the
following information:
• Hop Count: refers to the number of intermediate devices through
which data must pass between source and destination.

• Bandwidth: the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed

amount of time.

• Metric : is a unit that help the router choose the best route among
multiple feasible routes to a destination.

• Delay: delay of a network specifies how long it takes for a bit of

data to travel across the network from one node or endpoint to
another
 Routing Technique

• Routing is the process of selecting best paths

in a network.
• In packet switching networks, routing directs
packet forwarding through intermediate
nodes.
 Static Vs Dynamic Routing

• In static routing the routes are described by fixed paths

through a data network.
• The routes are entered by system administrator.
• The whole network can be configured by using static routes.

• Advantages of Static Routing

• Minimal CPU/Memory overhead
• No bandwidth overhead (updates are not shared between
routers)
 Disadvantages of Static Routing

• Infrastructure changes must be manually

adjusted
• No “dynamic” fault tolerance if a link goes
down
• Impractical on large network
 Dynamic Routing

• Dynamic routing protocols are the applications which discover network

destinations dynamically.
• Routers will communicate the adjacent routers which informs the network
to which each router is connected.
• These routers adjusts automatically in a network when traffic changes.

Advantages of Dynamic Routing

• Simpler to configure on larger networks

• Will dynamically choose a different (or better) route if a link goes down
• Ability to load balance between multiple links
 Static Vs Dynamic Routing

• Static routing manually sets up the optimal paths between the source
and the destination computers.
• On the other hand, the dynamic routing uses dynamic protocols to
update the routing table and to find the optimal path between the
source and the destination computers.
• The static routing is suitable for very small networks and they cannot
be used in large networks.
As against this, dynamic routing is used for larger networks.
• The manual routing has no specific routing algorithm.
The dynamic routers are based on various routing algorithms like
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol).
• The static routing is the simplest way of routing the data packets
from a source to a destination in a network.
The dynamic routing uses complex algorithms for routing the data
packets.
• The static routing has the advantage that it requires minimal
memory.
Dynamic router, however, require large memory, depending on the
routing algorithms used.
• The network administrator finds out the optimal path and makes the
changes in the routing table in the case of static routing.
In the dynamic routing algorithm, the algorithm and the protocol is
responsible for routing the packets and making the changes
accordingly in the routing table.
 Routing Table

• A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table format that is

used to determine where data packets traveling over an Internet
Protocol (IP) network will be directed.
• All IP-enabled devices, including routers and switches, use routing
tables.
• A routing table contains the information necessary to forward a
packet along the best path toward its destination.
• Each packet contains information about its origin and destination.
• When a packet is received, a network device examines the packet
and matches it to the routing table entry providing the best match
for its destination.
• The table then provides the device with instructions for sending the
packet to the next hop on its route across the network.
• A basic routing table includes the following information:

• Destination: The IP address of the packet's final destination

• Next hop: The IP address to which the packet is forwarded

• Interface: The outgoing network interface the device should

use when forwarding the packet to the next hop or final
destination

• Metric: Assigns a cost to each available route so that the most

cost-effective path can be chosen

• Routes: Includes directly-attached subnets, indirect subnets

that are not attached to the device

• Reference count: no of active use for each route

• Routing tables can be maintained manually or
dynamically.

• Tables for static network devices do not change

unless a network administrator manually changes
them.

• In dynamic routing, devices build and maintain their

routing tables automatically by using
routing protocols to exchange information about the
surrounding network topology.

• Dynamic routing tables allow devices to "listen" to

the network and respond to occurrences like
device failures and network congestion.
 Distance Vector Routing

• Least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with

minimum
distance
• Each node maintains a set of triples(Destination, Cost,
NextHop)
• The table at each node(router) also guides the packets to the
desired
node by showing the next stop in the route
• There is 2 steps in the route learning process
1. Initialization
2. Sharing
 Initialization
• Initially routing table in each node consists the distance between
itself and its immediate neighbors, those directly connected to it
• Not directly connected is marked infinities()
 Sharing

• 2 types of sharing(updates)
1. Periodic
2. Triggered
• Directly connected neighbors exchange(share)
updates periodically
(on the order of several seconds 30 sec)
• Whenever table changes (called triggered
update)
 Update Process
• Each update is a list of pairs: (Destination, Cost)
• Routing table will compare old routing table values with the shared
table
• Updating of routing table is based on minimum cost
Final Routing Table
 LINK STATE ROUTING

• Link state routing has a different philosophy

from that of distance vector routing.
• In link state routing, each node in the domain
has the entire topology of the domain the list
of nodes and links, how they are connected
including the type, cost (metric), and
condition of the links (up or down)-
• the node can use Dijkstra's algorithm to build
a routing table.
 Building Routing Tables

• In link state routing, four sets of actions are required

to ensure that each node has the routing table
showing the least-cost node to every other node.
• 1. Creation of the states of the links by each node,
called the link state packet (LSP).
• 2. Dissemination of LSPs to every other router, called
flooding, in an efficient and reliable way.
• 3. Formation of a shortest path tree for each node.
• 4. Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest
path tree.
Creation of Link State Packet (LSP)
• A link state packet can carry a large amount of
information.
• For the moment, however, we assume that it
carries a minimum amount of data: the node
identity, the list of links, a sequence number,
and age.
• The first two, node identity and the list of
links, are needed to make the topology.
• The third, sequence number, facilitates
flooding and distinguishes new LSPs from old
ones.
• The fourth, age, prevents old LSPs from
remaining in the domain for a long time.
 LSPs are generated on two occasions:

• 1. When there is a change in the topology of

the domain.
• 2. On a periodic basis. The timer set for
periodic dissemination is normally in the range
of 60 min or 2 h based on the
implementation.
 Flooding of LSPs
• After a node has prepared an LSP, it must be
disseminated to all other nodes, not only to
its neighbors. The process is called flooding
and based on the following:
1. The creating node sends a copy of the LSP
out of each interface.
2. A node that receives an LSP compares it with
the copy it may already have.
If the newly arrived LSP is older than the one it
has (found by checking the sequence
number), it discards the LSP.
Formation of Shortest Path Tree:
Dijkstra Algorithm
Routing Protocol
 Routing information protocols (RIP)

• RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a protocol type used in local area

network and wide area network.

• RIP (Routing Information Protocol) type is categorized interior gateway

protocol within the use of distance vector algorithm.

• Routing information protocols defined in 1988.

• It also has version 2 and nowadays both versions are in use.

• Technically it is outdated by more sophisticated techniques such as

(OSPF) .
• Each RIP router maintains a routing table, which is a list of all the
destinations (networks) it knows how to reach, along with the
distance to that destination.

• RIP uses a distance vector algorithm to decide which path to put

a packet on to get to its destination.

• It stores in its routing table the distance for each network it

knows how to reach, along with the address of the "next hop"
router -- another router that is on one of the same networks --
through which a packet has to travel to get to that destination.

• If it receives an update on a route, and the new path is shorter, it

will update its table entry with the length and next-hop address
of the shorter path;
 Open shortest path first (OSPF)

• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an active routing protocol used in

internet protocol.

• Particularly it is a link state routing protocol and includes into the

group of interior gateway protocol.

• Routers connect networks using the Internet Protocol (IP), and

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a router protocol used to find the
best path for packets as they pass through a set of connected
networks.

• OSPF is designated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

• The OSPF routing protocol has largely replaced the older
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) in corporate networks.

• Using OSPF, a router that learns of a change to a routing table

(when it is reconfigured by network staff, for example) or
detects a change in the network immediately multicasts the
information to all other OSPF hosts in the network so they will
all have the same routing table information.

• Unlike RIP, which requires routers to send the entire routing

table to neighbors every 30 seconds, OSPF sends only the part
that has changed and only when a change has taken place.
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) are the core routing

protocol of the internet and responsible to maintain
a table of Internet protocol networks which
authorize network reaching capability between AS.

• The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) expressed as

path vector protocol.

• BGP router maintains a standard routing table used

to direct packets in transit.
• This table is used in conjunction with a separate routing
table, known as the routing information base (RIB), which
is a data table stored on a server on the BGP router.

• The RIB contains route information both from directly

connected external peers, as well as internal peers, and
continually updates the routing table as changes occur.

• BGP is based on TCP/IP and uses client-server topology to

communicate routing information, with the client-server
initiating a BGP session by sending a request to the server.
Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
• Since IP does not have a inbuilt mechanism for sending error and
control messages.

• It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to

provide an error control.

• It is used for reporting errors and management queries.

• It is a supporting protocol and used by networks devices like

routers for sending the error messages and operations
information.
Type:
This defines the type of field message.
Code:
For error messages, this defines the sub type of field error.
Checksum:
The checksum is calculated by the header and the data that is used
to detect the errors.
Data:
packet in this section contains the complete information of the
packet.
Type:
This defines the type of field message.

Code:
For error messages, this defines the sub type of field error.

Checksum:
The checksum is calculated by the header and the data that is
used to detect the errors.

Data:
packet in this section contains the complete information of the
packet.
Destination un-reachable :
Destination unreachable is generated by the host or its inbound gateway to inform the
client that the destination is unreachable for some reason.

Source quench message :

Source quench message is request to decrease traffic rate for messages sending to the
host(destination).
when receiving host detects that rate of sending packets (traffic rate) to it is too fast it
sends the source quench message to the source to slow the pace down so that no packet
can be lost.

Parameter problem :
Whenever packets come to the router then calculated header checksum should be equal
to received header checksum then only packet is accepted by the router.

If there is mismatch packet will be dropped by the router.

ICMP will take the source IP from the discarded packet and informs to source by sending
parameter problem message.
Time exceeded message :

When some fragments are lost in a network then the holding fragment by the router will be
dropped then ICMP will take source IP from discarded packet and informs to the source, of
discarded datagram due to time to live field reaches to zero, by sending time exceeded
message.

Redirection message :
Redirect requests data packets be sent on an alternate route. The message informs to a
host to update its routing information (to send packets on an alternate route).
THE END