BUDDHISM AND

GENDER
Week 1: Introduction to Buddhism and Gender

Catherine Hardie|Assistant Professor|

Centre of Buddhist Studies HKU|
email: [email protected]
Today’s class

Gender and Buddhism

Gender
religion Basics

Buddhism Course
Questions
and gender overview
Gender
What is gender?

• The binary opposites of male and female is a basic, perhaps even universal, pattern in
human societies.
• We typically think of gender as the cultural or social qualities attached to a biologically
sexed body. Ideas about gender—about the differences between male and female, men
and women, masculine and feminine— inform how we think about virtually every realm
of our lives.
• Very often we believe that those differences are natural, that they derive from nature.
This is based on the assumption that:

female body → produces female behaviours → a feminine identity

male body → produces male behaviours → a male identity
Ideas about gender are not ‘innocent’

• The binary division of humans into males and females can take the form of an equal
but opposite, complementary relationship.
• However, in many historical contexts, masculinity — those characteristics or traits
we assign to men—have been regarded as superior to femininity (the qualities we
attribute to women).
• This superiority has been used to explain why, in most of our societies until the 20th
century, women did not enjoy the same rights and opportunities as men.
 The social construction of gender

• Early feminist writers and activists in the 20 th century

used the concept of gender to reject biological
explanations of women’s subordination.
• They defined sex as the biological given of either
maleness or femaleness and pointed out that gender—
the roles of males and females—is socially constructed.
• “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.”
Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (1949). This quote
implies that being a woman is not solely determined by
biology; rather, it highlights the role of socialisation –
exposure to societal influences and cultural norms – in
shaping one's identity as a woman.
 Sex-gender distinction

• Anthropologist Serena Nanda defines sex as “the biologically differentiated status of male or
female. It includes anatomic sex, particularly the genitals, and also secondary and invisible
characteristics such as genes and hormones.” She defines gender as “the social, cultural,
and psychological constructions that are imposed upon the biological differences of sex”
Gender Diversity (2000: 2).
• [Gender studies has complicated the binary understanding of sex by noting that some
persons are born with a combination of male and female characteristics, and some
cultures offer special roles for visibly intersex individuals].
 The evolution of women’s and gender studies

• Gender studies emerged from the women's movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s
as a response to the social and political activism of that time. The women's movement,
with its emphasis on addressing gender-based inequalities and advocating for women's
rights, provided the impetus for the development of gender studies as an academic
discipline.
• Its academic aims included addressing gender inequality; centering women's
experiences, histories, and contributions that had often been overlooked or marginalised
in traditional academic disciplines; and deconstructing binary notions of gender.
 “Gender as a useful category of analysis”.
• "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis" is an article by the historical Joan Wallach
Scott first published in the American Historical Review (AHR) in 1986. By 2008, it had received
more than 38, 000 views.
• The utility of gender across the arts, humanities, and social sciences lies in its ability to offer a
critical lens through which scholars can analyse, interpret, and challenge prevailing norms and
dynamics related to gender in various cultural, historical, and social contexts.
Employing gender as a lens may involve

Social Construction of Gender: Challenges the idea that gender is strictly a biological or natural category.
Instead, emphasizes that gender is socially constructed, shaped by cultural, historical, and institutional
factors.
Intersectionality: Recognises the interconnectedness of gender with other social categories such as race,
class, sexuality, and ethnicity, underscoring that individuals experience multiple layers of privilege or
oppression based on the interplay of these categories.
Power Relations and Inequality: Asserts that gender is a key factor in power relations and social inequality.
Identity Formation: Investigates how individuals form their identities in relation to gender.
Representation: Examines representations of gender in media, art, literature, and popular culture and how
they help to construct and reinforce gender norms, stereotypes, and expectations.
Feminist Epistemology: Challenges hegemonic ways of knowing and understanding the world
Political and Social Activism: Contributes to social justice and change by raising awareness of gender-
related issues and promoting inclusivity.
Women and beyond

“The history of women holds an integral place in gender history, but it is not its only focus.
Gender history incorporates women and men, masculinity and femininity, and sexual difference
generally; it places men and women in relation to one another. Underlying gender studies is
the conviction that gender is not natural or innocent; that what societies have fashioned as
masculinity and femininity has changed over time; and that by taking these things seriously, we
can see how these concepts have been constructed and how they have been resisted at
different times and in different places. Gender has been utilised by historical actors and groups
to uphold or challenge various social, economic, cultural, and political regimes, which brings up
the notion of power.” (Susan Kingsley Kent, 2020: 4-5)
Gender and Religion
Religion
• Religion is a domain of culture, but scholars of religions do not all agree on one definition of
religion.
• Theologian Paul Tillich (1886-1965) posited that to be religious is to have an ”ultimate concern.”
• The prominent religious scholar, Ninian Smart (1927-2001), proposed seven dimension of religion
that he believed were essential for understanding the diversity of religious traditions, namely:
Ritual Narrative/Mythic Experiential/Emotiona Social/Institutional
Ethical/Legal Doctrinal/Philosophical Material/Artistic
• The use of gender as a category of analysis in the study of religion has been highly productive,
providing scholars with a framework to critically examine and understand the role of gender in
religious beliefs, practices, institutions, and experiences.
Applying gender as a lens to study religion:
questions we can ask
“How is the divine, the sacred, gendered in theologies and religious philosophies? How are symbols of the ultimate reality
gendered, and what are the social implications of this symbolism for real women and men? Are women in a religious
tradition believed to have access to the means to achieve the ultimate concern? Are women regarded as being capable of
achieving the goal as defined by the religion?
Does the society permit women to be educated in the religion’s scriptures and to practice the methods to achieve the
ultimate concern? If women are regarded as able to achieve the ultimate goal equally with men, how does this relate to
women’s roles in society? Does the religion promote equality for women, or the subordination of women?
Do women exercise religious leadership equally with men, or are women subordinated and marginalised in religious
institutions? If a religious tradition restricts women from achieving the ultimate concern and enforces the subordination of
women, what are the beliefs and practices upon which women rely to nurture themselves and provide meaning for their
lives?
Do women who are subordinated in a religious tradition develop their own ultimate goals and the means to attain them?
What sorts of organisations, rituals, and beliefs are created by women as alternatives to patriarchal religious traditions?
What kinds of religions do women create in a culture in which there is growing social expectation for equality?
What are the characteristics of a religion in which women and men are equal?”
-- Catherine Wessinger, Theory of Women in Religions (2020: 23).
Buddhism Basics
 Buddhism Basics
• The life and enlightenment of the Buddha
• The Buddha’s core teachings
• Main phases of Buddhism’s development
• The spread of Buddhism beyond India
• Languages of Buddhism
• Buddhism(s) as a lived tradition
• “Buddhisms”
Life of the Buddha

• According to legend, the Buddha ('the awakened') was

born into the Shakya clan as a royal prince named
Siddhartha Gautama in the Magadha kingdom, present-
day India/Nepal. He lived between 563 and 483 BC.
• During his early years, he led a life of luxury and
privilege in the royal palace, shielded from the harsh
realities of life.
• Married to Yasodhara, with whom he had a son,
Rahula.
• Renounced his princely life in pursuit of spiritual
awakening.
• Achieved enlightenmet at the age of 35 under the
Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India.
• Passed into Parinirvana (final passing away) at the age
of 80 in Kushinagar.
The life and enlightenment of the Buddha

“The Buddha’s personal experience of enlightenment is the bedrock of the entire Buddhist tradition.
Time and again he invoked his own experience as authority for his doctrines, and suggested that
teachings not validated by personal experience were of little value. The Buddha’s enlightenment also
included an emotional aspect in the form of a profound compassion which motivated him to
propagate his teachings, or Dharma. Out of compassion for the suffering of mankind he spent the
greater part of his life spreading a teaching which he realised was ‘hard to see and understand,
subtle, to be experienced by the wise’, for the benefit of the few ‘with little dust in their eyes who are
wasting through not hearing it” – Damien Keown.
The life and enlightenment of the Buddha

• “The Buddha’s personal experience of enlightenment is the bedrock of the entire Buddhist
tradition. Time and again he invoked his own experience as authority for his doctrines, and
suggested that teachings not validated by personal experience were of little value. The Buddha’s
enlightenment also included an emotional aspect in the form of a profound compassion which
motivated him to propagate his teachings, or Dharma. Out of compassion for the suffering of
mankind he spent the greater part of his life spreading a teaching which he realised was ‘hard to
see and understand, subtle, to be experienced by the wise’, for the benefit of the few ‘with little
dust in their eyes who are wasting through not hearing it” – Damien Keown.

• Post-enlightenment, the Buddha travelled through India giving teachings and established the
monastic community, known as the Sangha, with the ordination of the first five disciples.
Reluctantly allowed the formation of the Bhikkhuni Sangha (order of nuns) after persuasion by his
stepmother, Mahapajapati Gotami.
The Buddha’s core teachings

Four Noble Truths:

1. Dukkha (Suffering): Recognition that suffering is inherent in human existence.
2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): Identification of the causes of suffering, primarily craving and attachment.
3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): Revelation that the cessation of suffering is attainable through the
removal of its causes.
4. Magga (Path to the Cessation of Suffering): Presentation of the Eightfold Path as the way to end suffering.
Eightfold Path:
5. Right View
6. Right Intention
7. Right Speech
8. Right Action
9. Right Livelihood
10.Right Effort
11.Right Mindfulness
12.Right Concentration
The Buddha’s core teachings

1.Impermanence (Anicca):
Teaching on the transient nature of all phenomena, emphasizing that nothing is permanent or
unchanging.
2.No-Self (Anatta):
Assertion that there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul, challenging the concept of a
fixed identity.
3.Dependent Origination (Paticca Samuppada):
Explanation of the interconnectedness of all phenomena and the arising of suffering based on specific
conditions.
4.Three Marks of Existence:
1. Dukkha (Suffering)
2. Anicca (Impermanence)
3. Anatta (No-Self)
Buddhism’s development after the Buddha

• The post-Buddha centuries witnessed a rich and dynamic evolution of Buddhist philosophy and doctrine,
resulting in the formation of diverse schools and the elaboration of complex metaphysical systems.
1. Post-Buddha Era in India:
1. 4th Century BCE Onward:
1. Buddhism gained prominence across India.
2. Monastic communities flourished, and followers upheld the Buddha's teachings.
2. First Buddhist Council (c. 483 BCE):
1. Immediate Aftermath:
1. The First Council focused on preserving the Buddha's teachings and monastic discipline.
2. Ananda recited the discourses, leading to the formalization of the oral tradition.
3. Schisms and Councils:
1. 3rd Century BCE Onward:
1. Second Council: Addressed schisms within the Sangha.
2. Third Council (c. 250 BCE): Addressed both schisms and controversies, led to the formation
of distinct schools.
Buddhism’s development after the Buddha

1. Early Buddhism (c. 4th Century BCE):

1. Maintained the original teachings of the Buddha as found in the Pali Canon.
2. Emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
2. Theravada (3rd Century BCE Onward):
1. Emerged as a distinct school after the Third Council.
2. Preserved the Pali Canon as its primary scripture.
3. Emphasized individual enlightenment and monastic discipline.
3. Mahayana (1st Century BCE Onward):
1. Developed later than Theravada.
2. Embraced new sutras and expanded the Bodhisattva path.
3. Emphasized compassion, universal enlightenment, and the concept of emptiness (shunyata).
4. Vajrayana (7th Century CE Onward):
1. Developed as a later extension of Mahayana.
2. Emphasized esoteric practices, including rituals, visualizations, and tantric methods.
3. Flourished in Tibetan Buddhism.
The spread of Buddhism beyond India
• The spread of Buddhism occurred through a combination of missionary activities, trade routes, and
cultural exchange. Here are the key mechanisms through which Buddhism disseminated beyond India:
• Missionary Activities: Emperor Ashoka: In the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka played a crucial role
in promoting Buddhism through missionary efforts. He sent emissaries, including his son Mahinda and
daughter Sanghamitta, to propagate the Dharma in neighboring regions.
• Monastic Missions: Buddhist monastics, both Theravada and Mahayana, embarked on missions to
disseminate the teachings. Notable figures like Bodhidharma, Faxian, and Xuanzang traveled
extensively, contributing to the spread of Buddhism.
• Trade Routes:
• Silk Road: The Silk Road, connecting East and West through Central Asia, facilitated cultural and
religious exchange. Buddhist monks and merchants traveled along these routes, introducing
Buddhism to Central Asian, Persian, and later, European regions.
• Maritime Routes: Buddhist ideas and practices spread through maritime trade routes, especially in
Southeast Asia. Coastal trade networks enabled the transmission of Buddhism to regions like Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, and beyond.
Geographical Spread:

Theravada: Predominantly in Southeast

Asia (Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar,
Cambodia).
Mahayana: Predominantly in East Asia
(China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam).
Vajrayana: Predominantly in Tibet and the
Himalayan region.
 Buddhist scriptures
• Unlike the Judeo-Christian traditions, Buddhism is not characterised by a strong reliance on a
single, central, and authoritative sacred scripture.
• Buddhism, instead, has a diverse textual tradition that varies across different traditions and
schools. The early teachings of Buddhism, ascribed to Gautama Buddha, were transmitted orally
for several centuries before being written down. The primary scriptures in Buddhism are known
as the Tripitaka (Pali Canon), and these form the basis of the early Buddhist textual tradition.
• However, Buddhism encompasses a wide array of texts that go beyond the core scriptures.
Different schools of Buddhism have their own collections of sutras, commentaries, and
philosophical treatises. The Mahayana tradition, for example, places significant importance on a
vast body of sutras, many of which were composed centuries after the historical Buddha.
• Moreover, Buddhism is not solely reliant on written texts. Oral transmission, meditation
practices, and direct experience play essential roles in the tradition. While scriptures are highly
revered, the emphasis is often on understanding and internalising the teachings rather than strict
adherence to a single authoritative text.
Languages of Buddhist texts
Pali Sanskrit Classical Tibetan Chinese
Canonical Language of Literary Language of Prominent in Tibetan and Key Language for East
Theravāda Buddhism; Mahāyāna Buddhism; Himalayan Buddhism; Asian Buddhism;
Preservation of Early Transmission of Key Texts Translation of Indian Translation of Buddhist
Buddhist Texts; (e.g., Mahayana Sutras) Buddhist Texts; Scriptures (Tripitaka)
Widely Used in Southeast Development of Tibetan
Asia Buddhist Canon

Japanese Thai, Sinhala and English Multilingual Practices in

Significant in Japanese Burmese A global lingua franca for Contemporary Buddhist
Buddhism Languages in Theravāda Buddhist Studies; Communities | Buddhism
Adoption and Adaptation Buddhist Traditions increasingly used for as an oral tradition
of Chinese Buddhist Texts Development of Buddhist contemporary Buddhist
Development of literatures in these literature
Indigenous Buddhist national languages has
Schools (e.g., Zen) occurred alongside Pali
texts.
 Buddhism as a lived religion

• Describing Buddhism as a ‘lived tradition’ emphasises that

it is not merely a set of theoretical beliefs or historical
doctrines but a living and evolving tradition embedded in
the daily lives of its followers.
• While Buddhism is often associated with its doctrinal
teachings and monasticism, its lived expression
encompasses a wide array of popular rituals, lay
devotional practices and cultural traditions.
• The concept of a lived tradition acknowledges the fluidity
and adaptability of Buddhism across different cultures and
historical periods, and that communities and individuals
infuse Buddhism with personal meaning, interpretations,
and applications, allowing the tradition to respond to the
changing circumstances of human life.
“Buddhisms”
Referring to Buddhism in the plural as "Buddhisms" reflects a recognition of the diversity and multiplicity within
the broader category of Buddhism. It suggests that there are various manifestations, interpretations, and
practices of Buddhism, and that the tradition is not singular or monolithic.
1. Diversity of Schools and Traditions: Buddhism encompasses a wide range of schools, traditions, and sects,
each with its own unique teachings, practices, and interpretations. Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana, Zen, and
Pure Land Buddhism, among others, represent distinct "Buddhisms" with their own characteristics.
2. Cultural and Regional Variations: Buddhism has spread to different regions and cultures, adapting to local
contexts and taking on diverse forms.
3. Historical Development: Buddhism has evolved over time, giving rise to various historical forms and
expressions. Different periods, such as early Buddhism, classical Indian Buddhism, and the development of
East Asian, Tibetan, and Southeast Asian Buddhist traditions, contribute to the plurality inherent in
"Buddhisms."
4. Interpretative and Philosophical Differences: Within each major school, there can be interpretative and
philosophical differences regarding the Buddhist teachings.
5. Multiplicity of Practices: The term suggests that there is a variety of ritual practices, meditation techniques,
and ethical principles that are associated with different Buddhist traditions. Each of these contributes to the
richness and diversity of "Buddhisms."
Further reading on Buddhism

• Harvey, Peter. 2013. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (2nd
Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Keown, Damien. 2013. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
• Rupert Gethin. 1998. The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Buddhism and Gender
Buddhism and gender
• Gender dynamics shape religious worlds in diverse and complex ways. This holds true in
Buddhism as it does in other religious traditions.
• Similar to all organized religions, Buddhism reflected the historical and social circumstances in
which it originated and evolved. Within the traditional context of India and other countries to
which Buddhism travelled, women did not experience the same societal standing as men, which
impacted their access to certain religious roles, spaces, knowledge, practices, and opportunities.
• Even so, Buddhism’s attitude to women specifically is multivocal and complex.
• Over the past two decades, there has been a significant increase in studies examining both the
status of women and the broader concept of gender within Buddhism.
Course Overview
Course description

“In this course we will take an interdisciplinary approach to critically examine the
relationship between Buddhism and gender in a broad variety of historical and Buddhist
thematic contexts.
To accomplish this, we will immerse ourselves in Buddhist texts and teachings, analyse
material and visual culture, and delve into the lived experiences of Buddhist practitioners
spanning from Early Buddhism to the present day, across a range of Buddhist traditions,
cultures, and geographical settings.
In so doing, we will explore topics including the role and status of women, the
construction of Buddhist masculinities and femininities, the gendering of religious roles,
institutions and practices, and activism towards gender equality in Buddhist
communities.
No background knowledge of Buddhism is required for this course and all students are
welcome.”
Weekly topics
Week 1: Introduction to Buddhism and gender Week 2: Women in Early Buddhism

Week 3: Women in Mahāyāna Buddhism Week 4: Buddhist masculinities across time and space

Week 5: Gender and monasticism Week 6: Gender and the body in Buddhist practice

Week 7: Constructions of Gender in Buddhist Arts and Week 8: Women and gender in Chinese Buddhism
Iconography

Week 9: Women and gender in Tibetan Buddhism Week 10: Buddhist women’s empowerment in the
modern era I

Week 11: Buddhist women’s empowerment in the Week 12: The third gender and transgenderism
modern era II
Course objectives

“By completing this course, students will cultivate an understanding of the importance of gender in
the study of Buddhism. They will develop a comprehensive grasp of the relationship between
Buddhism and gender in a variety of concrete historical and thematic contexts. Furthermore,
students will gain valuable insights into specific gender issues that arise within the context of
Buddhist texts, visual culture, and lived religious experience, including issues pertaining to gender
identity and representation, as well as soteriology, culture, ethics, and aesthetics.”
Learning outcomes

1. Understand the significance and utility of adopting gender as a critical lens to study
Buddhism.
2. Demonstrate familiarity with a range of disciplinary and methodological approaches to
studying gender in Buddhism.
3. Develop a familiarity with gender issues in a variety of concrete Buddhist historical and
thematic contexts.
4. Analyse and deconstruct Buddhist texts, visual culture and lived religion using gender
critical theories and concepts.
5. Demonstrate the ability to communicate individually and collectively in oral and written
forms.
Assessment: 100% coursework

1. Group project 20%

Once during the semester, students will actively participate in engaging with course readings in small groups
through the Perusall platform. This involves sharing thoughts, comments, and questions, as well as engaging
with contributions from their peers. The assessment will consider the quality of their online comments and
interaction, along with their participation in discussing the readings during in-class sessions.
2. In-class test 25%
In Week 7, students will take a 20-minute quiz to test their knowledge of the content, concepts and materials
covered in Weeks 1 to 6.
3. Long essay 35%
Students are required to compose a 1500-word essay exploring a course-related topic that engages with a predefined
set of readings. The essay topics will be provided in Week 10, and students are expected to submit their essays by
the end of Week 13.
4. Attendance and class participation 20%
Following the conclusion of the add-drop period, attendance will be recorded on a weekly basis and, together with
class participation, will constitute this overall grade.
Questions