Introduction to Probability

and Statistics
Twelfth Edition

Robert J. Beaver • Barbara M. Beaver • William

Mendenhall
Presentation designed and written by:
Barbara M. Beaver
Copyright ©2006 Brooks/Cole
A division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
 Introduction to Probability
and Statistics
Twelfth Edition

Chapter 1
Describing Data with Graphs

Some graphic screen captures from Seeing Statistics ® Copyright ©2006 Brooks/Cole
Some images © 2001-(current year) www.arttoday.com A division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
 Variables and Data
• A variable is a characteristic that
changes or varies over time and/or for
different individuals or objects under
consideration.
• Examples: Hair color, white blood cell
count, time to failure of a computer
component.

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 Definitions
• An experimental unit is the individual
or object on which a variable is
measured.
• A measurement results when a variable
is actually measured on an experimental
unit.
• A set of measurements, called data, can
be either a sample or a population.
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 Example
• Variable
–Hair color
• Experimental unit
–Person
• Typical Measurements
–Brown, black, blonde, etc.
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 Example
• Variable
– Time until a
light bulb burns out
• Experimental unit
– Light bulb
• Typical Measurements
– 1500 hours, 1535.5 hours, etc.
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How many variables have
you measured?
• Univariate data: One variable is
measured on a single experimental unit.
• Bivariate data: Two variables are
measured on a single experimental unit.
• Multivariate data: More than two
variables are measured on a single
experimental unit.
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Types of Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Discrete Continuous

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 Types of Variables
•Qualitative variables measure a quality or
characteristic on each experimental unit.
•Examples:
•Hair color (black, brown, blonde…)
•Make of car (Dodge, Honda, Ford…)
•Gender (male, female)
•State of birth (California, Arizona,….)
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 Types of Variables
•Quantitative variables measure a
numerical quantity on each experimental
unit.
Discrete if it can assume only a finite or
countable number of values.
Continuous if it can assume the
infinitely many values corresponding to the
points on a line interval.
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 Examples
• For each orange tree in a grove, the number
of oranges is measured.
– Quantitative discrete
• For a particular day, the number of cars
entering a college campus is measured.
– Quantitative discrete
• Time until a light bulb burns out
– Quantitative continuous
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Graphing Qualitative Variables
• Use a data distribution to describe:
– What values of the variable have
been measured
– How often each value has occurred
• “How often” can be measured 3 ways:
– Frequency
– Relative frequency = Frequency/n
– Percent = 100 x Relative frequency
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 Example
• A bag of M&Ms contains 25 candies:
m m m m m m m
• Raw Data: m m m
m m m m m m m m m m
m m m m m
• Statistical Table:
Color Tally Frequency Relative Percent
Frequency
Red mmm 3 3/25 = .12 12%
Blue mmmmmm 6 6/25 = .24 24%
Green mm mm 4 4/25 = .16 16%
Orange mmmmm 5 5/25 = .20 20%
Brown mm m 3 3/25 = .12 12%
Yellow mmmm 4 4/25 = .16 16%
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 6

Graphs
5

4
Frequency

2
Bar Chart
1

0
Brown Yellow Red Blue Orange Green
Color

Green Brown
16.0% 12.0%

Pie Chart Orange

Yellow
16.0%

20.0%

Red
12.0%

Blue
24.0%
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 Graphing Quantitative
Variables
• A single quantitative variable measured for different
population segments or for different categories of
classification can be graphed using a pie or bar
chart.
chart 5

AABig
BigMac
Machamburger
hamburger 4

Cost of a Big Mac ($)

costs
costs$4.90
$4.90in
in 3

Switzerland,
Switzerland,$2.90
$2.90in
in
the
theU.S.
U.S.and
and$1.86
$1.86inin
2

South
SouthAfrica.
Africa. 1

0
Switzerland U.S. South Africa
Country
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• A single quantitative variable measured
over time is called a time series.
series It can be
graphed using a line or bar chart.
chart
CPI: All Urban Consumers-Seasonally Adjusted
September October November December January February March
178.10 177.60 177.50 177.30 177.60 178.00 178.60

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

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MY APPLET
Dotplots
• The simplest graph for quantitative data
• Plots the measurements as points on a horizontal axis,
stacking the points that duplicate existing points.
• Example: The set 4, 5, 5, 7, 6

4 5 6 7

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 Stem and Leaf Plots
• A simple graph for quantitative data
• Uses the actual numerical values of each data
point.
––Divide
Divide eacheach measurement
measurement into into two
two parts:
parts: the the stem
stem
and
and the
the leaf.
leaf.
––List
List the
the stems
stems inin aa column,
column, with
with aa vertical
vertical line line to to
their
their right.
right.
––For
For each
each measurement,
measurement, recordrecord the
the leaf
leaf portion
portion in in
the
the same
same rowrow asas its
its matching
matching stem.
stem.
––Order
Order the the leaves
leaves from
from lowest
lowest toto highest
highest in in each
each
stem.
stem.
––Provide
Provide aa keykey toto your
your coding.
coding. Copyright ©2006 Brooks/Cole
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 Example
The prices ($) of 18 brands of walking shoes:
90 70 70 70 75 70 65 68 60
74 70 95 75 70 68 65 40 65

4 0 4 0
Reorder
5 5

6 580855 6 055588

7 000504050 7 000000455

8 8

9 05 9 05
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 Interpreting Graphs:
Location and Spread

•• Where
Where isis the
the data
data centered
centered on
on the the
horizontal
horizontal axis,
axis, and
and how
how does
does itit spread
spread
out
out from
from the
the center?
center? Copyright ©2006 Brooks/Cole
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Interpreting Graphs: Shapes
Mound shaped and
symmetric (mirror images)

Skewed right: a few

unusually large
measurements
Skewed left: a few unusually
small measurements

Bimodal: two local peaks

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Interpreting Graphs: Outliers

No Outliers Outlier

• Are there any strange or unusual

measurements that stand out in
the data set?
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 Example
• A quality control process measures the diameter of a
gear being made by a machine (cm). The technician
records 15 diameters, but inadvertently makes a typing
mistake on the second entry.
1.991 1.891 1.991 1.988 1.993 1.989 1.990 1.988
1.988 1.993 1.991 1.989 1.989 1.993 1.990 1.994

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 Relative Frequency Histograms
• A relative frequency histogram for a
quantitative data set is a bar graph in which the
height of the bar shows “how often” (measured as
a proportion or relative frequency) measurements
fall in a particular class or subinterval.

Create intervals Stack and draw bars

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 Relative Frequency Histograms
• Divide the range of the data into 5-12
subintervals of equal length.
• Calculate the approximate width of the
subinterval as Range/number of subintervals.
• Round the approximate width up to a convenient
value.
• Use the method of left inclusion,
inclusion including the
left endpoint, but not the right in your tally.
• Create a statistical table including the
subintervals, their frequencies and relative
frequencies. Copyright ©2006 Brooks/Cole
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 Relative Frequency Histograms
• Draw the relative frequency histogram,
histogram
plotting the subintervals on the horizontal
axis and the relative frequencies on the
vertical axis.
• The height of the bar represents
– The proportion of measurements falling in
that class or subinterval.
– The probability that a single measurement,
drawn at random from the set, will belong to
that class or subinterval.
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 Example
The ages of 50 tenured faculty at a
state university.
• 34 48 70 63 52 52 35 50 37 43 53 43 52 44
• 42 31 36 48 43 26 58 62 49 34 48 53 39 45
• 34 59 34 66 40 59 36 41 35 36 62 34 38 28
• 43 50 30 43 32 44 58 53

• We choose to use 6 intervals.

• Minimum class width = (70 – 26)/6 = 7.33
• Convenient class width = 8
• Use 6 classes of length 8, starting at 25.
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Age Tally Frequency Relative Percent
Frequency
25 to < 33 1111 5 5/50 = .10 10%
33 to < 41 1111 1111 1111 14 14/50 = .28 28%
41 to < 49 1111 1111 111 13 13/50 = .26 26%
49 to < 57 1111 1111 9 9/50 = .18 18%
57 to < 65 1111 11 7 7/50 = .14 14%
65 to < 73 11 2 2/50 = .04 4%

14/50

12/50
Relative frequency

10/50

8/50

6/50

4/50

2/50

0
25 33 41 49 57 65 73
Ages
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 14/50

Describing 12/50

Relative frequency
10/50

the 8/50

6/50

Distribution 4/50

2/50

0
25 33 41 49 57 65 73
Ages

Shape? Skewed right

Outliers? No.
What proportion of the (14 + 5)/50 = 19/50 = .38
tenured faculty are younger
than 41?
What is the probability that a (8 + 7 + 2)/50 = 17/50 = .34
randomly selected faculty
member is 49 or older?
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 Key Concepts
I. How Data Are Generated
1. Experimental units, variables, measurements
2. Samples and populations
3. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate data
II. Types of Variables
1. Qualitative or categorical
2. Quantitative
a. Discrete
b. Continuous
III. Graphs for Univariate Data Distributions
1. Qualitative or categorical data
a. Pie charts
b. Bar charts

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 Key Concepts
2. Quantitative data
a. Pie and bar charts
b. Line charts
c. Dotplots
d. Stem and leaf plots
e. Relative frequency histograms
3. Describing data distributions
a. Shapes—symmetric, skewed left, skewed right,
unimodal, bimodal
b. Proportion of measurements in certain intervals
c. Outliers

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